Friday, 6 February 2026

Signs of Mysterious Structures Near The Core Detected in Earth's Magnetic Field


Illustration of a completely new type of magnetic wave that sweeps across Earth’s outer core. 
(ESA/Planetary Visions)

While we have sent probes billions of kilometers into interstellar space, humans have barely scratched the surface of our own planet, not even making it through the thin crust.

Information about Earth's deep interior comes mainly from geophysics and is at a premium. We know it consists of a solid crust, a rocky mantle, a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core.

But what precisely goes on in each layer – and between them – is a mystery. Now our research uses our planet's magnetism to cast light on the most significant interface in the Earth's interior: its core-mantle boundary.

Roughly 3,000 km beneath our feet, Earth's outer core, an unfathomably deep ocean of molten iron alloy, endlessly churns to produce a global magnetic field stretching out far into space. Sustaining this "geodynamo", and the planetary force-field it has produced for the past several billions of years (protecting Earth from harmful radiation), takes a lot of energy.

This was delivered to the core as heat during the Earth's formation. But it is only released to drive the geodynamo as it conducts outwards to cooler, solid rock floating above in the mantle.

Without this massive internal heat transfer from core to mantle and ultimately through the crust to the surface, Earth would be like our nearest neighbors, Mars and Venus: magnetically dead.


Simulated maps of Earth's magnetic field (left) can only be made to look like those of the real field (right) if Earth's core is assumed to have hot Blobs of rock sitting directly on top of it. 
(Andy Biggin/CC BY-SA)
 
Enter the Blobs

Maps showing how fast seismic waves (vibrations of acoustic energy) that traverse Earth's rocky mantle change in its lowermost part, just above the core. Especially notable are two vast regions close to the equator beneath Africa and the Pacific Ocean, where seismic waves travel more slowly than elsewhere.

What makes these "big lower-mantle basal structures", or "Blobs" for short, special is not clear. They are made of solid rock similar to the surrounding mantle, but may be higher in temperature, or different in composition, or both.

Strong variations in temperature at the base of the mantle would be expected to affect the underlying liquid core and the magnetic field that is generated there. The solid mantle changes temperature and flows at an exceptionally slow rate (millimeters per year), so any magnetic signature from strong temperature contrasts should persist for millions of years.

From rocks to supercomputers

Our study reports new evidence that these Blobs are hotter than the surrounding lower mantle. And this has had a noticeable effect on Earth's magnetic field over the last few hundreds of millions of years at least.

As igneous rocks, recently solidified from molten magma, cool down at Earth's surface in the presence of its magnetic field, they acquire a permanent magnetism that is aligned with the direction of this field at that time and place.

It is already well known that this direction changes with latitude. We observed, however, that the magnetic directions recorded by rocks up to 250 million years old also seemed to depend on where the rocks had formed in longitude. The effect was particularly noticeable at low latitudes. We therefore wondered whether the Blobs might be responsible.

The clincher came from comparing these magnetic observations to simulations of the geodynamo run on a supercomputer. One set was run assuming that the rate of heat flowing from core to mantle was the same everywhere.

These either showed very little tendency for the magnetic field to vary in longitude or else the field they produced collapsed into a persistently chaotic state, which is also inconsistent with observations.

By contrast, when we placed a pattern on the core's surface that included strong variations in the amount of heat being sucked into the mantle, the magnetic fields behaved differently.

Most tellingly, assuming that the rate of heat flowing into the Blobs was about half as high as into other, cooler, parts of the mantle meant that the magnetic fields produced by the simulations contained longitudinal structures reminiscent of the records from ancient rocks.

A further finding was that these fields were less prone to collapsing. Adding the Blobs therefore enabled us to reproduce the observed stable behaviour of Earth's magnetic field over a wider range.

What seems to be happening is that the two hot Blobs are insulating the liquid metal beneath them, preventing heat loss that would otherwise cause the fluid to thermally contract and sink down into the core. Since it is the flow of core fluid that generates more magnetic field, these stagnant ponds of metal do not participate in the geodynamo process.

Furthermore, in the same way that a mobile phone can lose its signal by being placed within a metal box, these stationary areas of conductive liquid act to "screen" the magnetic field generated by the circulating liquid below.

The huge Blobs therefore gave rise to characteristic longitudinally varying patterns in the shape and variability of Earth's magnetic field. And this mapped on to what was recorded by rocks formed at low latitudes.

Most of the time, the shape of Earth's magnetic field is quite similar to that which would be produced by a bar magnet aligned with the planet's rotation axis. This is what makes a magnetic compass point nearly north at most places on Earth's surface, most of the time.

Collapses into weak, multipolar states, have occurred many time over geological history but they are quite rare and the field seems to have recovered fairly quickly afterwards. In the simulations at least, Blobs seem to help make this the case.

So, while we still have a lot to learn about what the Blobs are and how they originated, it may be that in helping to keep the magnetic field stable and useful for humanity, we have much to thank them for.

Andrew Biggin, Professor of Geomagnetism, University of Liverpool
 
 
 
 
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A Hidden Atmospheric Shift Let Methane Surge Worldwide


Methane surged not because humans burned more fuel—but because a cleaner atmosphere and wetter world accidentally let this powerful greenhouse gas run wild. 
Credit: Shutterstock

Atmospheric methane rose faster than ever in the early 2020s, driven less by fossil fuels and more by changes in nature itself.

Methane levels in Earth’s atmosphere climbed at an unprecedented pace in the early 2020s due to a mix of weaker natural removal and rising emissions from warming wetlands, rivers, lakes, and agricultural land. An international team of scientists reports these findings today (February 5) in the journal Science, pointing to a convergence of atmospheric chemistry changes and climate-driven shifts on the ground.

Researchers found that the atmosphere temporarily lost much of its ability to break down methane. During 2020–2021, levels of hydroxyl radicals, the main chemical responsible for removing methane from the air, dropped sharply. According to the research team, including Boston College Earth and Environmental Science Professor Hanqin Tian, this decline explains about 80 percent of the year-to-year changes in how quickly methane built up.
 
La Niña and Expanding Wetlands Boost Emissions

At the same time, a prolonged La Niña event from 2020 to 2023 brought unusually wet conditions across much of the tropics. These wetter landscapes expanded flooded areas, creating ideal conditions for microbes that produce methane. This effect intensified emissions of methane, the second-most important greenhouse gas after carbon monoxide.

Between 2019 and 2023, atmospheric methane increased by 55 parts per billion, reaching a new record of 1921 ppb in 2023. The fastest rise occurred in 2021, when methane levels jumped by nearly 18 ppb, representing an 84 percent increase compared with 2019.

“As the planet becomes warmer and wetter, methane emissions from wetlands, inland waters, and paddy rice systems will increasingly shape near-term climate change,” said Tian. “Our findings highlight that the Global Methane Pledge must account for climate-driven methane sources alongside anthropogenic controls if its mitigation targets are to be achieved.”
 
Managed Landscapes Play a Bigger Role Than Expected

The methane response was not limited to natural wetlands. Managed environments such as paddy rice fields and inland waters also contributed substantially, according to Tian, who serves as Director of the Center for Earth System Science and Global Sustainability in the Schiller Institute for Integrated Science and Society. These sources are often underestimated or missing in global methane models.

The largest emission increases were detected in tropical Africa and Southeast Asia. Arctic wetlands and lakes also showed notable growth as rising temperatures boosted microbial activity. In contrast, methane output from South American wetlands fell in 2023 during an extreme El Niño–related drought, underscoring how sensitive methane emissions are to climate extremes, the report notes.
 
How Scientists Tracked the Methane Surge

Tian and his colleagues played a key role in measuring how wetlands, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and global paddy rice farming contributed to the rapid increase in methane. By combining land, freshwater, and atmospheric processes in advanced Earth system models, the Boston College team demonstrated how climate variability amplified emissions across connected ecosystems.

Importantly, the study found that fossil fuel use and wildfires were not major contributors to the recent methane surge. Chemical fingerprinting shows that microbial sources, including wetlands, inland waters, and agriculture, were responsible for most of the observed increase.

“By providing the most up-to-date global methane budget through 2023, this research clarifies why atmospheric methane rose so rapidly,” said lead author Philippe Ciais of the University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines. “It also shows that future methane trends will depend not only on emission controls, but on climate-driven changes in natural and managed methane sources.”
 
Key Findings From the Study 
 
The rapid rise in methane during the early 2020s was driven mainly by a temporary weakening of atmospheric chemistry, rather than a surge in emissions alone.
 
A short-term decline in hydroxyl (OH) radicals during 2020–2021 accounts for roughly 80-85 percent of the year-to-year changes in methane growth.
 
COVID-19–related shifts in air pollution played an important role. Lockdowns reduced nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), which in turn lowered OH levels and allowed methane to accumulate more quickly.
 
Climate-driven emissions from wetlands and inland waters further amplified the increase. Exceptionally wet conditions during La Niña (2020–2023) boosted methane output in tropical Africa and Southeast Asia, with additional increases seen in Arctic regions.
 
Changes in fossil fuel and biomass-burning emissions were relatively small and cannot explain the global spike in methane.
 
Finally, the study highlights gaps in current bottom-up emission models. Many widely used models underestimated emissions from wetlands and inland waters during this period, revealing the need for better monitoring of flooded ecosystems and microbial methane production.
 
 
 
 
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Discovery of Mammoth Ivory Tools Resets Human Timeline in North America


(Daniel Eskridge/Getty Images)

Human-made ivory and stone tools have been found in a 14,000-year-old layer of Alaskan earth, providing evidence of some of the first people to inhabit the Americas.

The tools resemble those made by people of the Clovis culture, which is widely recognized as one of the earliest cultures to leave behind archaeological evidence in North America. But strong evidence for the Clovis culture only goes back around 13,000 years.

This means the middle Tanana Valley site in Alaska, where the 14,000-year-old tools were discovered, is one of the earliest archaeological sites on the American continents.


Late Pleistocene extent of glaciation at 14 and 13 thousand years ago (ka) with the Beringia landmass, and ancient archaeological sites. 
(Wygal et al., Quant. Int., 2026)

"The site reveals evidence of stone and mammoth ivory tool production, food preparation, and human dispersals dating back to 14,000 years," a US research team from Adelphi University and the University of Alaska Fairbanks explains in a published paper.

For most of the 20th century, archaeologists believed the Clovis people were the first people to inhabit North America, arriving in the Great Plains via the Bering land bridge, which once connected the regions we now call Siberia and Alaska.

However, more recent evidence has overturned the notion that the Clovis were America's first people. Footprints at White Sands in New Mexico date to more than 20,000 years (though the method of dating these is also controversial), and a 'coastal kelp highway' is now thought to have brought the first wave of humans to the continent at a time when the Bering was frozen over.

But the Alaskan ivory tools provide a 'missing link' between Beringian hunters and the Clovis, further evidence of their migration across the ice-age land bridge.

These finds suggest these ancestors of the Clovis people settled in less-frozen areas like the Tanana Valley, before continuing their migration south through a passage between the receding ice sheets.

Mammoth ivory is a signature of the Clovis culture's technology, and the methods used to create the ivory tools in the Tanana Valley site suggest a lineage spanning from Siberia to the Great Plains. This, the archeologists argue, is proof of the 'First Alaskans' (if not the First Americans).

"The Holzman archaeological site in the middle Tanana Valley, Alaska, provides significant insights into the behaviors of the First Alaskans and their interactions with Ice Age megafauna, particularly woolly mammoths," the authors write.

The oldest layer of the site contained a female mammoth tusk, almost entirely intact, along with some flake tools, a hammer stone, animal remains, red ocher, and material evidence of burning and knapping.In a slightly younger, 13,700-year-old layer, the team discovered a large workshop complete with quartz – essential in creating the mammoth ivory tools – the by-products of mammoth tool production, and the earliest-known ivory rod tools found in the Americas.


(A) A large quartz bifacial chopper or cleaver; 
(B) Heavy flat anvil stone manuport among a large ivory workstation including small hearth and abundant ivory fragments; 
(C) Large ivory blank with quartz scraper and flake tools lying in situ; (
D) A female woolly mammoth tusk cached near a small
hearth and activity area. 
(Wygal et al., Quant. Int., 2026)

"Mammoth ivory and lithic material appear to factor prominently in resource circulation throughout eastern Beringia and the eventual dispersal of people further south into the Rocky Mountains and Northern High Plains of North America," the researchers write.

The authors themselves state that while the tools are good evidence that the Clovis's immediate ancestors did, in fact, migrate from Alaska, they don't rule out the possibility that pre-Clovis humans inhabited the continent much earlier.

While the tools provide strong evidence for culture and technology, we will need more evidence from ancient DNA and climate data to be sure of this migration wave.
 
 
 
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Thursday, 5 February 2026

Thousands of Penguins Are Being Killed and the Reason Is Complicated


A Magellanic penguin carcass showing signs of predation by puma at the Monte León National Park colony. 
Credit: © Joel Reyero 2024

Pumas are back in Patagonia, penguins are paying a price—but climate-driven breeding failures may be the real extinction risk.

Penguins along Argentina’s Patagonian coast are facing an unexpected threat as pumas return to parts of their historic range. A new study closely examines how this predator comeback affects the long term survival of the penguin colony.
 
Over a four year period, researchers estimate that pumas at a national park killed more than 7,000 adult penguins, representing about 7.6% of the colony’s adult population. Many of the birds were left uneaten, suggesting that not all were killed for food.
 
Despite the striking number of deaths, the study finds that puma predation alone is unlikely to push the colony toward collapse. Instead, factors such as poor breeding success and lower survival among young penguins pose a much greater risk to the population’s future.
The research was published today (5 February) in the Journal for Nature Conservation.
 
A Conservation Dilemma in Patagonia

Should conservation efforts prioritize one iconic species if doing so may harm another, especially in ecosystems still recovering from past human activity? This question is at the heart of an ongoing challenge at Monte Leon National Park along Argentina’s Patagonian coast.

The issue has emerged as wildlife returns to landscapes once heavily altered by people. In this case, the recovery of a top predator has created unexpected consequences for a vulnerable prey species.


A Magellanic penguin at the nest, built under bushes in Monte León National Park. 
Credit: © Joel Reyero 2024
 
 
 
Pumas Return to a Changed Landscape

After cattle ranching ended in southern Argentina in 1990, pumas (Puma concolor) began reclaiming parts of their historic range. Their return brought them into contact with Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), which had previously moved from offshore islands to the mainland when terrestrial predators were absent.

The penguins, which lack strong defenses against land predators, became easy targets. Until recently, however, scientists did not know how much impact this new predator-prey interaction was having on penguin population numbers.


An adult puma leaving the penguin nesting area, and a penguin lies dead behind it. (This study did not collar the pumas). 
Credit: © Joel Reyero 2024
 
 
 
Tracking Penguin Losses Over Time

Since the park was established in 2004, scientists from the Centro de Investigaciones de Puerto Deseado of the Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral, together with rangers from Monte Leon National Park, have closely monitored penguin colonies. Over a four year period (2007-2010), they documented penguin carcasses linked to puma attacks.

For the latest study, the team partnered with researchers from Oxford University’s Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) to analyze the long term implications of these findings.


Infographic of the study’s findings. 
Credit: Sarah Markes
  
Thousands of Penguins Killed

Based on carcass counts, researchers estimated that more than 7,000 adult penguins were killed during the four year study period. Many of the birds were only partially eaten or left untouched, suggesting they were not all killed for food. This total represents about 7.6% of the adult population (around 93,000 individuals).

Lead author Melisa Lera, a postgraduate student at WildCRU, Oxford University, said: “The number of carcasses showing signs of predation we found in the colony is overwhelming, and the fact that they were left uneaten means pumas were killing more penguins than they required for food. This is consistent with what ecologists describe as ‘surplus killing’. It is comparable to what is seen in domestic cats when prey are abundant and/or vulnerable: ease of capture can lead to cats hunting more birds, even when they do not end up actually eating them. We needed to understand if the penguin colony’s persistence could be threatened due to this behavior.”


Fieldwork included counting carcasses and measuring body dimensions to better assess the impacts of puma predation. 
Credit: © Esteban Frere 2007



Modeling the Colony’s Future

When researchers modeled the population data, the results suggested that puma predation alone was unlikely to cause the penguin colony at Monte Leon Park to collapse. Instead, the long term outlook depended more heavily on breeding success and the survival of young penguins.

Extinction scenarios only appeared when the models combined very low juvenile survival, with roughly 20% failing to reach adulthood, and extremely poor reproduction, limited to a maximum of one chick per breeding pair. In these situations, heavy puma predation worsened the outcomes but was not the primary driver.

Study co-author Dr. Jorgelina Marino (WildCRU, Oxford University) said: “This study captures an emerging conservation challenge, where recovering carnivores are encountering novel prey. Understanding how these dietary shifts affect both predators and prey is essential to inform conservation.”
 
Climate and Broader Ecosystem Pressures

Because breeding success and juvenile mortality emerged as key factors, the researchers emphasize the need to better understand how environmental conditions affect penguin reproduction. Factors such as nutrient availability, food supply, and temperature are all known to be influenced by climate change and could play a critical role in future population stability.

The situation in Patagonia reflects a broader global trend. As land predators expand into coastal areas, other mainland seabird colonies may also face new risks. For example, non-native feral hogs have become major predators of loggerhead sea turtle eggs along the Georgia coast, USA, while coyotes in eastern North America are increasingly occupying coastal barrier islands and reshaping those ecosystems.
 
The Need for Ongoing Monitoring

The authors stress that long term monitoring is essential to detect early warning signs of population decline and guide effective management decisions. At Monte Leon National Park, authorities continue to track both puma and penguin populations as they navigate the complex consequences of ecosystem recovery.
 
 
 
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Most Preventable Cancers Are Linked to Just Two Lifestyle Habits


(Thom Leach/Science Photo Library/Getty Images)

It's easy to feel powerless against cancer, but a new study has identified several ways that we can reduce the odds of it occurring.

According to new analysis from the World Health Organization (WHO), more than a third of all cancer cases globally are preventable.

Lung, stomach, and cervical cancers make up nearly half of those cases.

This means that millions of deadly cancers every year could be prevented through medical intervention, behavior changes, reducing occupational risks, or tackling environmental pollutants.

"Addressing these preventable causes represents one of the most powerful opportunities to reduce the global cancer burden," says Isabelle Soerjomataram, medical epidemiologist at WHO and senior author of the analysis.

The analysis found that in 2022, there were nearly 19 million new cases of cancer. Roughly 38 percent of those diagnoses were related to 30 changeable risk factors.

These included tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption, high body mass index, insufficient physical activity, smokeless tobacco (like chewing tobacco), a traditional stimulant known as areca nut, suboptimal breastfeeding, air pollution, ultraviolet radiation, infectious agents, and over a dozen occupational exposures.

The number one preventable factor associated with cancer? Smoking tobacco. It was linked to 15 percent of all cancer cases that year.

For men, the risk was particularly high. Smoking contributed to 23 percent of all new cancer cases globally in men that year.


Cancer cases linked to preventable risk factors in a) women and b) men. 
(Fink et al., Nat. Med. 2026)

But smoking isn't the only cause; air pollution also plays a role, and its impact varies by region. In East Asia, for instance, about 15 percent of all lung cancer cases in women were due to air pollution. In Northern Africa and Western Asia, meanwhile, approximately 20 percent of all lung cancer cases in men were due to air pollution.

After tobacco smoking, the runner-up among changeable lifestyle factors was drinking alcohol. It accounted for 3.2 percent of all new cancer cases (approximately 700,000 cases).

Infections, meanwhile, were linked to roughly 10 percent of new cancer cases. Among women, the largest share of preventable cancers was due to high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV), which can lead to cervical cancer.

Thankfully, we now have a vaccine for HPV that prevents many of these associated diseases, and yet coverage in many parts of the world remains low.

Stomach cancer cases are higher among men and tend to be associated with smoking and infections due to overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, and poor access to clean water.
 
 
 
 
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The Planet Is Being Coated in a Chemical That Never Goes Away


Chemicals designed to protect the ozone layer are now flooding the planet with a persistent “forever chemical,” scientists report. The pollution is spreading globally, accumulating in rain, ice, and water bodies—and it’s still increasing. 
Credit: Shutterstock

The chemicals that helped save the ozone layer may be quietly seeding the planet with an indestructible pollutant.

Chemicals introduced to protect the ozone layer are now linked to the worldwide spread of a long-lasting and potentially harmful substance, according to new research. Scientists report that these replacements have unintentionally contributed to large-scale pollution by a so-called forever chemical that does not easily break down once released into the environment.

A team of atmospheric scientists led by researchers at Lancaster University has, for the first time, calculated the global impact of these chemicals. Their findings show that replacements for ozone-damaging CFCs, along with certain anesthetic gases, were responsible for depositing about a third of a million tonnes (335,500 tonnes) of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) across Earth’s surface between 2000 and 2022. 

Pollution That Continues to Build Over Time

The researchers warn that the problem is not slowing down. Many CFC replacement chemicals remain in the atmosphere for decades, allowing TFA pollution to keep increasing long after the gases are released. The study estimates that annual TFA production from these sources could reach its highest levels at some point between 2025 and 2100.

The research was published today (February 4) in the journal Geophysical Research Letters and relied on advanced chemical transport modeling. This approach simulates how gases move through the atmosphere, react with other chemicals, and eventually settle back onto the planet’s surface.
 
How Refrigerants and Anesthetics Produce TFA

Using this model, the team measured how TFA forms when certain gases break down in the atmosphere. These include hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are widely used in refrigeration, as well as chemicals used in inhalation anesthetics.

Although these substances, known collectively as F-gases, are being phased out (following the Montreal Protocol and the later Kigali Amendment), their concentrations in the atmosphere continue to rise.

TFA is part of a broader group of man-made compounds called per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS). These chemicals are often referred to as forever chemicals because they persist in the environment for extremely long periods.

Growing Concerns About Environmental and Health Effects

Scientists are still working to fully understand the risks associated with TFA. The European Chemicals Agency classifies it as harmful to aquatic life. Studies have detected TFA in human blood and urine, and the German Federal Office for Chemicals has recently proposed that TFA be classified as potentially toxic to human reproduction.

While some agencies believe current TFA levels remain below thresholds that pose a direct risk to human health, concerns are growing about its steady and potentially irreversible buildup. This has led to calls for TFA to be recognized as a planetary boundary threat.

“Our study shows that CFC replacements are likely to be the dominant atmospheric source of TFA,” said Lucy Hart, PhD researcher at Lancaster University and lead author of the study. “This really highlights the broader risks that need to be considered by regulation when substituting harmful chemicals such as ozone-depleting CFCs.”
 
Tracking a Chemical That Travels the Globe

To test their findings, the researchers compared their model’s estimates of TFA production and deposition with real-world observations, including measurements from Arctic ice-cores and rainwater samples.

The model was informed by data from a global monitoring network that tracks how much of each source gas is present in the atmosphere and where it is located. These gases react with other atmospheric components, breaking down and forming TFA in the process.

Weather patterns were also built into the model to calculate how TFA moves and settles. The chemical can be washed out of clouds by rainfall or deposited directly from the air onto land and water surfaces.
 
Why the Arctic Is a Key Warning Sign

The modeling revealed that nearly all TFA detected in the Arctic originates from CFC replacement chemicals, despite the region being far from major emission sources. This finding highlights how widely TFA pollution spreads across the planet.

“CFC replacements have long lifetimes and are able to be transported in the atmosphere from their point of emission to remote regions such as the Arctic where they can breakdown to form TFA,” said Lucy Hart. “Studies have found increasing TFA levels in remote Arctic ice-cores, and our results provide the first conclusive evidence that virtually all of these deposits can be explained by these gases.”
 
New Refrigerants Add Future Uncertainty

Beyond polar regions, the researchers found additional concerns at midlatitudes. Their modeling supports growing evidence that HFO-1234yf, commonly used in car air conditioning systems, is becoming an important and likely expanding source of atmospheric TFA.

“HFOs are the latest class of synthetic refrigerants marketed as climate-friendly alternatives to HFCs,” said Professor Ryan Hossaini of Lancaster University and co-author of the study. “A number of HFOs are known to be TFA-forming, and the growing use of these chemicals for car air conditioning in Europe and elsewhere adds uncertainty to future levels of TFA in our environment.”

“There is a need to address environmental TFA pollution because it is widespread, highly persistent, and levels are increasing,” Professor Hossaini said.
 
Calls for Long-Term Monitoring and Global Action

“The rising levels of TFA from F-gases is striking. Although HFC use is gradually being phased down, this TFA source will remain with us for decades. There’s an urgent need to understand other TFA sources and to assess TFA’s environmental impacts. This requires a concerted international effort, including more extensive TFA monitoring in the UK and elsewhere,” he said.

Professor Cris Halsall, Director of the Lancaster Environment Centre and co-author, emphasized that the origins of TFA are broader than once thought.

“We’ve generally viewed TFA as a breakdown product from the use of a few fluorinated pesticides, but it’s clear that TFA (a very persistent chemical in the environment) arises from the use and breakdown of a very wide group of organofluorine chemicals including refrigerants, solvents, pharmaceuticals, and the PFAS group in general.”

Co-author Dr Stefan Reimann, whose team in Switzerland closely monitors TFA-forming gases in the atmosphere, said global measurements are painting a consistent picture.

“In all regions where TFA measurements are available, a consistent picture of increasing atmospheric concentrations and deposition to Earth’s surface is emerging,” he said.

“This study is outstanding, as it combines for the first time all the important sources of atmospheric TFA and has a global focus. With increasing use of HFOs, accumulation of TFA in water bodies will potentially grow, and this makes long-term monitoring a necessity.”
 
 
 
 
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Wednesday, 4 February 2026

Scientists Discover Living Bacteria Hidden Inside the #1 Type of Kidney Stone

BY U. OF CAL. - LOS ANGELES HEALTH SCIENCES, JAN. 30, 2026

A new study suggests that kidney stone formation may involve more than chemistry alone. This discovery may open the door to new therapeutic strategies for preventing and treating kidney stones, as well as the infections they often cause. 
Credit: Shutterstock

Scientists have uncovered an unexpected biological factor hidden within the most common type of kidney stone.

A team of researchers at UCLA has reported an unexpected twist in a condition long treated as a crystal chemistry problem. In samples of the most common kidney stone, they found bacteria living inside the stone itself, suggesting that biology may be part of the process that helps these stones take shape.

The study, recently published in the peer-reviewed journal PNAS, points toward a new kind of treatment target. Instead of focusing only on the minerals that make up the stone, future strategies could also aim at the microbial activity associated with it, with the goal of preventing stones or making them easier to treat.

“This breakthrough challenges the long‑held assumption that these stones develop solely through chemical and physical processes, and instead shows that bacteria can reside inside stones and may actively contribute to their formation,” said Dr. Kymora Scotland, an assistant professor of urology at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and the study’s co-senior author. “By uncovering this novel mechanism, the study opens the door to new therapeutic strategies that target the microbial environment of kidney stones.”

The work was co-authored by Gerard Wong of UCLA.

Rising Prevalence and Known Risk Factors

Kidney stones begin as tiny crystals that can accumulate and clump together in urine. Rates have increased worldwide in recent years, and about 1 in 11 people are expected to develop a stone at some point. Family history, metabolic syndrome, and low fluid intake are among the factors linked to higher risk, in part because they can allow crystals to grow large enough to resist being flushed out naturally.

Several stone subtypes exist, and bacteria have been recognized in one rare type. Calcium oxalate (CaOx) stones, which make up nearly 80% of cases, have not been considered bacterial. Using electron and florescence microscopy, the researchers identified live bacteria within these stones, along with biofilms, layered bacterial communities that were embedded within the crystal structure.

“We found a new mechanism of stone formation that may help to explain why these stones are so common,” Scotland said. “These results may also help to explain the connections between recurrent urinary tract infections and recurrent kidney stone formation, and provide insights on potential future treatment for these conditions.”

The findings suggest that bacteria could also be involved in other kidney stone types, she added.

Ongoing Questions and Future Research

The study has focused on calcium-based stones. How other, less common stones form is still in question. More studies are needed to fully understand how bacteria and calcium-based kidney stones interact, the researchers conclude.

“Our multi-institutional team is currently performing studies to determine how bacteria and calcium-based kidney stones interact. We want to understand exactly what makes some patients particularly susceptible to recurrent stone formation, and what it is about these particular species of bacteria that allows them to nucleate these stones,” Scotland said.



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Poop From Young Donors Reverses Age-Related Decline in The Guts of Older Mice

04 Feb. 2026, By M. STARR

(Sebastian Kaulitzki/Science Photo Library/Getty Images)

Supplementing the guts of older mice with poop from younger ones has revealed the key role microbes play in intestinal stem cell function.

After receiving a fecal microbiota transplant from younger mice, one aspect of age-related decline in the guts of older mice was reversed, driven by increased intestinal stem cell activity that maintains the intestinal walls.

The findings suggest that such transplants could someday be a treatment pathway for age-related intestinal conditions, such as inflammation and obesity.

"As we age, the constant replacement of intestinal tissue slows down, making us more susceptible to gut-related conditions," says molecular biologist Hartmut Geiger of Ulm University in Germany. "Our findings show that younger microbiota can prompt older intestine to heal faster and function more like younger intestine."



Intestinal stem cells are crucial for maintaining a stable, healthy gut. They're the mechanism by which the gut lining – the epithelium – constantly replenishes and renews itself, ensuring consistent gut function.

However, as we age, the rate of this renewal slows, increasing vulnerability to age-related gut dysfunction.

In previous research, Geiger and his colleagues, cell biologists Yi Zheng and Kodandaramireddy Nalapareddy of Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, determined that this slowed regeneration is directly linked to reduced function of intestinal stem cells.

We also know that the microbial communities that live in our guts change with age, with such changes linked to conditions like Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and even vision loss. The researchers wanted to know if the gut microbiome affects stem cell activity, too.

So, they recruited more team members and designed a simple experiment to test it: transplanting fecal samples between and within groups of old mice and young mice.

After the series of transplants was complete, the researchers studied the intestines to see what changes, if any, resulted from the transfer.

In the older mice, the change was dramatic. Stem cell activity had increased, as well as the Wnt signalling that these cells need in order to function. The regeneration of the epithelium picked up pace – and, critically, the gut healed more quickly after radiation damage.

"This reduced signaling causes a decline in the regenerative potential of aged ISCs," Zheng says. "However, when older microbiota were replaced with younger microbiota, the stem cells resumed producing new intestine tissue as if the cells were younger. This further demonstrates how human health can be affected by the other life forms living inside us."

In the younger mice, the change was less dramatic. There was only a slight drop in stem cell activity, Wnt signalling, and regeneration; the intestines continued to function reasonably well. This suggests that the aging gut is far more sensitive to microbiome changes than younger ones.

Another really interesting finding was that one of the perpetrators of stem cell curtailment in the aging gut is Akkermansia, a bacterium that is generally considered beneficial in several ways, with signs that it can help reduce diet-induced obesity and depression-like behavior in mice.

In aging mice, elevated levels of Akkermansia actually contribute to the suppression of Wnt signalling – a finding that implies that gut bacteria are not necessarily good or bad, but that their contribution may depend on context.

This isn't a slam-dunk for human health; our bodies (and intestines) are more complex than those of mice, and we'd need to perform separate studies to see if this phenomenon occurs in our own species.

However, the research does illuminate a promising avenue for future study.

It also suggests that age-related stem cell decline may not be irreversible. By harnessing the ability of gut microbes to shape how intestinal tissue renews itself, scientists could one day develop ways to help preserve intestinal health as we age.


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Scientists Discover Gut Bacteria Can Inject Proteins Into Human Cells

BY HELMHOLTZ MUNICH (GMBH), FEB. 3, 2026

Researchers have uncovered a previously unknown way that gut bacteria can directly communicate with human cells, using specialized molecular systems to deliver proteins that influence immune pathways. 
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Scientists have uncovered a direct molecular mechanism by which gut bacteria inject proteins into human cells, reshaping immune responses and potentially driving inflammatory disease.

Scientists have discovered that bacteria living in the human gut can directly transfer their own proteins into human cells, influencing how the immune system responds. The work, led by researchers at Helmholtz Munich with collaborators from Ludwig Maximilians University (LMU), Aix Marseille University, Inserm, and other international partners, identifies a previously unknown form of communication between gut microbes and human cells.

This mechanism offers a new explanation for how the gut microbiome affects the body and may help clarify why shifts in gut bacteria are linked to inflammatory conditions such as Crohn’s disease.

For years, researchers have connected the gut microbiome to immune, metabolic, and inflammatory disorders. However, much of this evidence has been based on correlations, leaving the biological processes that drive these relationships poorly understood.

“Our goal was to better characterize some of the underlying processes of how gut bacteria affect human biology,” says Veronika Young, first author of the study together with Bushra Dohai. “By systematically mapping direct protein–protein interactions between bacterial and human cells, we can now suggest molecular mechanisms behind these associations.”

Protein Injection Systems in Bacteria of the Healthy Gut

The research shows that many common, non-harmful gut bacteria contain type III secretion systems, tiny molecular structures that function like syringes and allow bacteria to inject proteins directly into human cells. Until now, scientists believed these systems were found only in disease-causing bacteria such as Salmonella. The discovery reveals that even bacteria considered part of a healthy gut ecosystem can actively interact with human cells in far more direct ways than previously recognized.

“This fundamentally changes our view of commensal bacteria,” says Prof. Pascal Falter-Braun, Director of the Institute for Network Biology at Helmholtz Munich and corresponding author of the study. “It shows that these non-pathogenic bacteria are not just passive residents but can actively manipulate human cells by injecting their proteins into our cells.”

Mapping How Bacteria Talk to Human Cells

To understand what these bacterial proteins do in human cells, the researchers mapped over a thousand interactions between bacterial effector proteins and human proteins, creating a large-scale interaction network.

Their analyses showed that bacterial proteins preferentially target human pathways involved in immune regulation and metabolism. Further laboratory experiments confirmed that these proteins can modulate key immune signaling pathways, including NF-κB and cytokine responses.

Cytokines are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune system and prevent excessive reactions that can lead to autoimmune diseases. For example, inhibiting the activity of the cytokine Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) is a widely used treatment for Crohn’s disease, an autoimmune disease of the gut.

Links to Inflammatory Bowel Disease

The researchers also found that genes encoding these bacterial effector proteins are enriched in the gut microbiomes of patients with Crohn’s disease.

This suggests that direct protein delivery from gut bacteria to human cells may contribute to chronic intestinal inflammation, providing a potential mechanistic explanation for previously observed microbiome–disease links.

A New Perspective on Microbiome-Host Interactions

By identifying a previously unrecognized molecular layer between gut bacteria and the human immune system, the study advances our understanding of how the microbiome affects human cells, shifting research from correlation toward causation.

It also raises intriguing questions, such as whether these injection systems evolved primarily for pathogenic purposes, or if they originally supported commensal coexistence and were later co-opted by pathogens.

Future research will aim to determine how individual bacterial effector–host interactions function in specific tissues and disease contexts, with the goal of translating these insights into more precise strategies for disease prevention and treatment.


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Tuesday, 3 February 2026

There's a Surprising Problem Behind The Modern Mindfulness Trend

02 Feb. 2026, By R. S. GREEN, THE CONVERSATION

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Over the past two decades, the concept of mindfulness has become hugely popular around the world. An increasingly ubiquitous part of society, it's taught everywhere from workplaces and schools to sports programs and the military.

On social media, television, and wellness apps, mindfulness is often shown as one simple thing – staying calm and paying attention to the moment.

Large companies like Google use mindfulness programs to help employees stay focused and less stressed. Hospitals use it to help people manage pain and improve mental health. Millions of people now use mindfulness apps that promise everything from lowering stress to sleeping better.

But as a professor of religious studies who has spent years examining how mindfulness is defined and practiced across different traditions and historical periods, I've noticed a surprising problem beneath the current surge of enthusiasm: Scientists, clinicians, and educators still don't agree on what mindfulness actually is – or how to measure it.


Experts can't agree on what mindfulness actually is. 
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Because different researchers measure different things under the label "mindfulness," two studies can give very different pictures of what the practice actually does. For someone choosing a meditation app or program based on research findings, this matters.

The study you're relying on may be testing a skill like attention, emotional calm, or self-kindness that isn't the one you're hoping to develop. This makes it harder to compare results and can leave people unsure about which approach will genuinely help them in daily life.

From ancient traditions to modern science

Mindfulness has deep roots in Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, Sikh, and other Asian contemplative lineages. The Buddhist "Satipatthana Sutta: The Foundations of Mindfulness" emphasizes moment-to-moment observation of body and mind.

The Hindu concept of "dhyāna," or contemplation, cultivates steady focus on the breath or a mantra; Jain "samayika," or practice of equanimity, develops calm balance toward all beings; and Sikh "simran," or continuous remembrance, dissolves self-centered thought into a deeper awareness of the underlying reality in each moment.

In the late 20th century, teachers and clinicians began adapting these techniques for secular settings, most notably through mindfulness-based stress reduction and other therapeutic programs. Since then, mindfulness has migrated into psychology, medicine, education, and even corporate wellness.

It has become a widely used – though often differently defined – tool across scientific and professional fields.

Why scientists disagree about mindfulness

In discussing the modern application of mindfulness in fields like psychology, the definitional challenge is front and center. Indeed, different researchers focus on different things and then design their tests around those ideas.

Some scientists see mindfulness mainly in terms of emphasizing attention and paying close attention to what's happening right now.

Other researchers define the concept in terms of emotional management and staying calm when things get stressful.

Another cohort of mindfulness studies emphasizes self-compassion, meaning being kind to yourself when you make mistakes.

And still others focus on moral awareness, the idea that mindfulness should help people make wiser, more ethical choices.

These differences become obvious when you look at the tests researchers use to measure mindfulness.

The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, or MAAS, asks about how well someone stays focused on the present moment.

The Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory – FMI – asks whether a person can notice thoughts and feelings as they come and accept them without judgment.

The Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experiences – CHIME – adds something most other tests leave out: questions about ethical awareness and making wise, moral choices.

As a result, comparative research can be tricky, and it can also be confusing for people who want to be more mindful but aren't sure which path to take. Different programs may rely on different definitions of mindfulness, so the skills they teach and the benefits they promise can vary a lot.

This means that someone choosing a mindfulness course or app might end up learning something very different from what they expected unless they understand how that particular program defines and measures mindfulness.

Why different scales measure different things

John Dunne, a Buddhist philosophy scholar at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, offers a helpful explanation if you've ever wondered why everyone seems to talk about mindfulness in a different way. Dunne says mindfulness isn't one single thing, but a "family" of related practices shaped by different traditions, purposes, and cultural backgrounds.

This explains why scientists and people trying to be mindful often end up talking past each other. If one study measures attention and another measures compassion, their results won't line up. And if you're trying to practice mindfulness, it matters whether you're following a path that focuses on calming your mind, being kind to yourself, or making ethically aware choices.

Why this matters

Because mindfulness isn't just one thing, it affects how it's studied, practiced, and taught. That's important both at the institutional and individual level.

Whether for places like schools and health care, a mindfulness program designed to reduce stress will look very different from one that teaches compassion or ethical awareness.

Without clarity, teachers, doctors, and counselors may not know which approach works best for their goals. The same rough idea applies in business for organizational effectiveness and stress management.
Despite the disagreements, research does show that different forms of mindfulness can produce different kinds of benefits. Practices that sharpen attention to the moment are associated with improved focus and workplace performance.

Approaches oriented towards acceptance tend to help people better manage stress, anxiety, and chronic pain. A focus on compassion-based methods can support emotional resilience. Programs that emphasize ethical awareness may promote more thoughtful, prosocial behavior.

These varied outcomes help explain why researchers continue to debate which definition of "mindfulness" should guide scientific study.

For anyone practicing mindfulness as an individual, this is a reminder to choose practices that fit your needs.



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A Parasite Carried by Billions Has a Secret Life Inside the Brain

BY U. OF CALIFORNIA - RIVERSIDE, FEB. 1, 2026

Scientists have discovered that Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite that infects up to one-third of people worldwide, is far more active and complex than previously assumed. 
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A common parasite hiding in the brain turns out to be far more active and organized than anyone realized.

A team of scientists at the University of California, Riverside, has discovered that Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite estimated to infect up to one-third of the world’s population, is far more biologically complex than previously understood. Their findings, published in Nature Communications, provide new insight into how the parasite causes disease and why it has proven so difficult to eliminate with current treatments.

How Toxoplasmosis Spreads in Humans

People typically become infected with toxoplasmosis by eating undercooked meat or through contact with contaminated soil or cat feces. Once inside the body, the parasite is known for its ability to evade the immune system by forming tiny cysts, most often in the brain and muscle tissue.

In most infected individuals, the parasite causes no noticeable symptoms. Even so, it remains in the body for life inside these cysts, which can hold hundreds of parasites. Under certain conditions, especially when the immune system is weakened, the parasites can become active again and may cause serious damage to the brain or eyes. Infection during pregnancy carries additional risks, as it can lead to severe complications in developing babies whose immune systems are not fully formed.

Rethinking What Happens Inside Parasite Cysts

For many years, scientists believed that each cyst contained a single, uniform type of parasite that stayed dormant until reactivation. Using advanced single-cell analysis methods, the UC Riverside researchers found that this long-held assumption was incorrect. Their work shows that each cyst contains multiple distinct parasite subtypes, each with its own biological role.

“We found the cyst is not just a quiet hiding place — it’s an active hub with different parasite types geared toward survival, spread, or reactivation,” said Emma Wilson, a professor of biomedical sciences in the UCR School of Medicine and the study’s lead author.
The Structure and Location of Toxoplasma Cysts

Wilson explained that cysts develop gradually as the parasite responds to pressure from the immune system. Each cyst is enclosed by a protective wall and contains hundreds of slow-growing parasites known as bradyzoites. While cysts are microscopic, they are relatively large compared to other intracellular pathogens, reaching up to 80 microns in diameter. Individual bradyzoites measure about five microns in length.

These cysts are most commonly found inside neurons, but they also frequently appear in skeletal and cardiac muscle. This is especially significant because humans are often infected by eating undercooked meat that contains these cysts.

Why Cysts Drive Disease and Persistence

According to Wilson, cysts play a critical role in both disease and transmission. Once established, they resist all existing therapies and remain in the body indefinitely. They also help the parasite spread between hosts.

When cysts reactivate, bradyzoites transform into fast-growing tachyzoites that spread throughout the body. This process can cause severe illnesses such as toxoplasmic encephalitis (neurological damage) or retinal toxoplasmosis (vision loss).

Challenging a Simplified Life Cycle Model

“For decades, the Toxoplasma life cycle was understood in overly simplistic terms, conceptualized as a linear transition between tachyzoite and bradyzoite stages,” Wilson said. “Our research challenges that model. By applying single-cell RNA sequencing to parasites isolated directly from cysts in vivo, we found unexpected complexity within the cyst itself. Rather than a uniform population, cysts contain at least five distinct subtypes of bradyzoites. Although all are classified as bradyzoites, they are functionally different, with specific subsets primed for reactivation and disease.”

Overcoming Longstanding Research Challenges

Wilson noted that cysts have been difficult to study for decades. They grow slowly, are buried deep within tissues such as the brain, and do not form efficiently in standard laboratory cultures. Because of these challenges, most genetic and molecular research on Toxoplasma has focused on tachyzoites grown in vitro, leaving cyst-dwelling bradyzoites poorly understood.

“Our work overcomes those limitations by using a mouse model that closely mirrors natural infection,” Wilson said. “Because mice are a natural intermediate host for Toxoplasma, their brains can harbor thousands of cysts. By isolating these cysts, digesting them enzymatically, and analyzing individual parasites, we were able to gain a view of chronic infection as it occurs in living tissue.”

What the Findings Mean for Future Treatments

Wilson explained that current treatments can control the rapidly replicating form of the parasite responsible for acute illness, but no available drugs can eliminate cysts.

“By identifying different parasite subtypes inside cysts, our study pinpoints which ones are most likely to reactivate and cause damage,” she said. “This helps explain why past drug development efforts have struggled and suggests new, more precise targets for future therapies.”

Ongoing Risks and a Shift in Scientific Focus

Congenital toxoplasmosis remains a serious concern when infection first occurs during pregnancy, as it can lead to severe outcomes for the fetus. While prior immunity usually protects the developing baby, routine screening is not available in some countries, highlighting the challenges of managing an infection that is widespread but often symptom-free.

Despite its prevalence, toxoplasmosis has received far less attention than many other infectious diseases. Wilson hopes the new findings will help change that.

“Our work changes how we think about the Toxoplasma cyst,” she said. “It reframes the cyst as the central control point of the parasite’s life cycle. It shows us where to aim new treatments. If we want to really treat toxoplasmosis, the cyst is the place to focus.”



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A Fundamental Quantum Rule May Entangle the Entire Universe

BY THE HENRYK NIEWODNICZANSKI INST. OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS POLISH ACAD. OF SCIENCES, FEBRUARY 2, 2026

At the deepest level of quantum physics, particles may not be as independent as they appear. New theoretical work shows that nonlocal behavior can emerge simply because identical particles are fundamentally indistinguishable. 
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A new study suggests that some of the most counterintuitive features of quantum physics may not need to be engineered at all.

At the most fundamental level of physics, nature does not behave locally. Particles separated by vast distances can act not as independent objects, but as components of a single quantum system. Researchers in Poland have now demonstrated that this kind of nonlocal behavior, which stems from the simple fact that particles of the same type are indistinguishable, can be observed experimentally for nearly all possible states of identical particles.

According to quantum mechanics, every particle of a given type, such as photons or electrons, is inherently entangled with every other particle of that same type, whether it is nearby or located in a distant galaxy. This counterintuitive idea follows directly from a core principle of the theory: particles of the same type are fundamentally identical.

This suggests the existence of a universal source of entanglement that underlies the strange nonlocal properties of the quantum world. It also raises a deeper question of whether this resource can be accessed or tested, despite the strict limits imposed by quantum theory.

Two theorists from the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IFJ PAN) in Cracow and the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Informatics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IITiS PAN) in Gliwice have now addressed these questions. Their results, published in npj Quantum Information (Nature Publishing Group), show that the identity of particles alone can give rise to experimentally detectable quantum nonlocality.

Identity turns the universe nonlocal

To reach this conclusion, the researchers examined the most basic form of entanglement between identical particles using the concept of nonlocality introduced by physicist John Bell. While entanglement is a central idea in quantum theory, the notion of locality is more familiar and intuitive.

It reflects the everyday expectation that causes and effects spread through space at a limited speed, never exceeding the speed of light. When no such explanation can account for observed correlations, the phenomenon is described as nonlocal. This distinction lies at the heart of Bell’s work, in which he proposed experiments that cannot be explained by any local theory. These experiments rely on entangled systems shared between two distant observers, traditionally called Alice and Bob, who can each perform independent measurements on their respective systems.

“At first glance, the problem seems simple: entangled systems violate Bell’s inequalities, so all you need to do is perform a well-designed experiment. Indeed, but this applies only to distinguishable systems that can be labelled and sent to two distant laboratories. With identical particles, this framework breaks down,” says Dr. Pawel Blasiak (IFJ PAN), and goes on to explain: “Quantum mechanics is clear: identical particles are indistinguishable by their very nature. In practice, we do not measure ‘this particular’ particle, but ‘some’ particle at a given location. Quantum physics consistently resists any attempt to assign them individual labels — and that is precisely why the classical Bell scenario cannot be applied here.”

Dr. Marcin Markiewicz (IITiS PAN), co-author of the article, clarifies: “This seemingly subtle difference introduces new ground rules for describing the world: it requires the symmetrization or antisymmetrization of the wave function in systems with multiple particles. It is precisely the principle of particle identity that leads to the division into fermions and bosons — two worlds that underpin the structure of atoms and their nuclei, and determine the nature of interactions. Indistinguishability also blurs the very concept of entanglement: in the case of identical particles, it no longer behaves as we are used to — and loses some of its practical meaning. This is where the real challenge lies in addressing the question of nonlocality arising from the fundamental indistinguishability of particles.”

Why standard entanglement tests break down

Contemporary experiments on entanglement typically involve its artificial creation through interactions between particles within a quantum system. Yet quantum mechanics also points to another, more fundamental mechanism: entanglement — and perhaps nonlocality itself — may arise directly from the identical nature of particles of the same type. From this perspective, nonlocality could even manifest between particles that have never interacted with one another before.

It is this primordial form of nonlocality that captured the interest of physicists from the IFJ PAN and the IITiS PAN. They set out to determine whether it could be demonstrated in experiments composed solely of simple, passive linear optical elements: mirrors, beam splitters, and particle detectors. Such systems can be arranged so that the propagating particles never meet at any point. Yet if Bell’s inequalities could still be violated under these conditions, it would imply that the observed nonlocality is not a by-product of experimental interactions, but a manifestation of something truly fundamental.

Revealing nonlocality without interaction

The researchers posed a simple yet remarkably general question: for which quantum states of identical particles can one identify a classical optical system in which nonlocal correlations become manifest? The challenge lies in the fact that both the number of possible optical configurations and the diversity of identical-particle states appear virtually limitless.

The scientists managed to tame this complexity using an arsenal of sophisticated tools: the Yurke-Stoler interferometer, clever post-selection, the concept of ‘quantum erasure’, mathematical induction, and extensive experience in constructing hidden-variable models.

In their article, the Polish theorists presented a criterion that enables the clear identification of nonlocality for any state containing a fixed number of identical particles.

The conclusions are surprising: all fermionic states and almost all bosonic states turn out to be nonlocal resources (in the latter case, except for a narrow class of so-called states reducible to a single mode). Notably, the proof is entirely constructive: it demonstrates, step by step, how to design optical experiments that reveal the nonlocality of the state under investigation.

Almost all identical particles are nonlocal

“Our research reveals that the very indistinguishability of particles hides a source of entanglement we can access. Could nonlocality, then, be woven into the fabric of the Universe itself? Everything seems to suggest that this is indeed the case, with the source of this extraordinary property lying in the seemingly simple postulate of the identical nature of particles of the same type,” concludes Dr. Blasiak, whose research was co-funded by a Fulbright Senior Award (2022-23) at the Institute for Quantum Studies (IQS), Chapman University, California.

As always, much remains to be understood, and questions about the nature of reality and the interpretation of quantum mechanics gain new resonance.

Physicists Charles W. Misner, John A. Wheeler, and future Nobel laureate Kip S. Thorne expressed this insight eloquently in their 1973 book Gravitation: “No acceptable explanation for the miraculous identity of particles of the same type has ever been put forward. That identity must be regarded, not as a triviality, but as a central mystery of physics.”

This enduring puzzle will likely continue to inspire researchers for many decades to come.



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