These Tiny Birds Became Giants on Remote Scottish Islands

By U. of Birmingham, June 18, 2026

https://scitechdaily.com/these-tiny-birds-became-giants-on-remote-scottish-islands/

A juvenile St Kilda Wren with color rings. 

Credit: Craig Nisbet

Remote Scottish islands turned tiny wrens into giant birds that may be evolving into new species.

Tiny wrens living on remote Scottish islands are providing scientists with a rare look at how evolution can reshape animals in isolated environments. A new study led by researchers at the University of Birmingham found that several island populations of wrens have followed their own evolutionary paths, with some growing dramatically larger than their mainland relatives.

The findings, published in the Evolutionary Journal of the Linnean Society, offer fresh insight into the biological phenomenon known as “island syndromes.” These are recurring evolutionary patterns seen in species that become isolated on islands.

Researchers focused on four subspecies of wrens found only on Scottish islands and archipelagos: Shetland, Fair Isle, the Outer Hebrides, and St Kilda. Although these birds live in broadly similar island environments, each population has remained geographically separated and differs noticeably from wrens found across mainland Great Britain and continental Europe.
Giant Wrens on Remote Scottish Islands

One of the most striking discoveries involved a phenomenon known as island gigantism, in which animals evolve larger body sizes after becoming isolated on islands.

Famous examples include the giant tortoises of the Galápagos Islands and the extinct dodo of Mauritius, both of which became much larger than their mainland ancestors. The new study shows that Scottish wrens may represent an unusually extreme bird example of the same process.

Scientists found that wren populations on Shetland and St Kilda show very little evidence of interbreeding with mainland birds. These isolated populations have also grown significantly larger over time.

A Shetland Wren in hand in Kergord, Mainland, Shetland. 

Credit: Michał T. Jezierski, University of Birmingham



A typical wren from England weighs between 7 and 10 grams. By comparison, wrens living on St Kilda weigh between 13 and 16 grams. The largest St Kilda birds are more than twice the size of the smallest wrens found on mainland Great Britain. According to the researchers, this places them among the top 25% of known cases of island gigantism in birds worldwide.

Dr. Michał Jezierski, from the School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences and lead author of the study, said: “We found that all four Scottish Wren subspecies are genetically distinct from the Wrens of mainland Britain; with the Wrens of Shetland and St Kilda being especially distinct in both appearance and song. Their genetic distinctiveness is so high, that it is likely they are on their way to becoming new species.”

Signs of New Species Emerging

To investigate these populations, researchers combined body measurements, song recordings, and whole genome sequencing. This approach allowed them to compare island and mainland wrens in unprecedented detail and better understand how island syndromes develop.

The results showed that each island population has become genetically distinct and remains largely isolated from the others.

The wrens of Shetland and St Kilda are particularly interesting because they appear very similar physically, yet the genetic changes that separate them from mainland wrens are largely different. In other words, the two groups arrived at similar outcomes through different genetic routes.

By contrast, wrens living on Fair Isle and in the Outer Hebrides remain more similar to mainland populations. This suggests that even neighboring island groups do not necessarily evolve in the same way.

Parallel Evolution in Action

According to the researchers, the similarities between the Shetland and St Kilda wrens are an example of parallel evolution.

Dr. Jezierski explained: “Our genomic data indicates that Shetland and St Kilda Wrens are genetically distinct from each other, despite their similarities in physical appearance. This means that their island gigantism is a case of ‘parallel evolution’, where a similar original population (probably colonists from the British mainland) made it to each island archipelago, and then independently evolved to become island giants. In the process, their songs also became very different from those of ‘mainland’ British birds.”

The findings suggest that similar island environments can push populations toward comparable traits, even when the underlying genetic changes differ.

Will Smith, from the University of Nottingham and a co-author of the study, said: “Our research suggests that islands with similar environments can produce similar evolutionary outcomes using different genetic pathways. The Wrens of Scotland provide us with a powerful case study to understand the mechanisms by which island biodiversity is generated worldwide.”

Unlocking the Mystery of Island Evolution

Islands are home to an estimated 20% to 30% of the world’s species and are known for producing unusual forms of wildlife, from Madagascar’s lemurs to Indonesia’s Komodo dragons. Because islands are naturally isolated and often have fewer predators and competitors than nearby mainland regions, they create unique evolutionary conditions.

Scientists have observed island syndromes in a wide range of plants and animals around the world. Common traits include larger body size, longer lifespans, slower reproduction, and in birds, reduced flight ability. Despite how widespread these patterns are, researchers still do not fully understand the biological mechanisms that drive them.

The Scottish wrens also show other traits commonly linked to island evolution. Along with their larger size, they have developed distinctive songs as well as subtle differences in plumage and body shape.

Although the reasons behind island gigantism and other island syndromes remain uncertain, the researchers say these wren populations provide an exceptional opportunity to explore how evolution works in isolated environments. By studying these birds, scientists hope to better understand the small-scale evolutionary processes that eventually produce the remarkable biodiversity seen on islands around the world.

The Life of Earth

https://chuckincardinal.blogspot.com/

Top Ten Myths about Neanderthals

J. Gillan, June 24, 2020

https://www.ancient-origins.net/human-origins-science/top-ten-myths-about-neanderthals-001551

An artist’s reconstruction of a Neanderthal, displayed in the exhibition ‘Britain: One Million Years of the Human Story’.

 Source: The Trustees of the Natural History Museum, London

Neanderthals are generally classified by palaeontologists as the species Homo neanderthalensis, but some consider them to be a subspecies of Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). The first humans with proto-Neanderthal traits are believed to have existed in Europe as early as 600,000–350,000 years ago, and they died out around 30,000 years ago.

When it comes to behaviors, Neanderthals tend to get a pretty bad rap. However, a plethora of research over the last several years has been breaking down many of the myths associated with this ancient species.

Once depicted as barbaric, grunting, sub-humans, Neanderthals are now known to have had the same or similar levels of intelligence as modern humans. They also had their own distinct culture. Here we examine 10 myths about Neanderthals which have now been proven false.

The belief in the barbaric, grunting, primitive Neanderthal is changing. (anibal /Adobe Stock)

Myth 1: Neanderthal Tools were not as Good as Tools Made by Modern Humans

The predominant belief in mainstream archaeology over a decade ago was that Neanderthals only utilized very simplistic tools, like sharpened stones. However, research conducted over the last 10 years has revised this perspective based on new archaeological evidence.

An investigation conducted in France , for example, analyzed artifacts unearthed from an archaeological site known as Abri du Maras, in the Middle Rhône Valley. The researchers found Levalloise flakes, which are associated with Neanderthal stone tool technology, traces of twisted fiber, suggesting the manufacture of cordage or string, and six lithic points that appear to be related to complex projectile technology, a development usually only associated with early modern humans.

A second study suggested that Neanderthals even passed on some of their tool-making abilities to humans . Dutch scientists discovered 50,000-year-old tools made from deer ribs in south-west France, which are similar to bone lissoirs or smoothers, still used by leather workers today, and contain a polished tip which creates softer and more water resistant leather when scraped against a hide. The excavated tools are similar to others found at sites occupied by early modern humans around 10,000 years later.

Neanderthal may have taught Homo sapiens new tool making technologies. 

(Andy Ilmberger / Adobe Stock)



Modern humans (Homo sapiens) appear to have entered Europe with only pointed bone tools but soon after their arrival they started to make lissoirs, providing the first possible evidence that Neanderthals invented the specialized bone tools and passed their know-how on to Homo sapiens.

Myth 2: Neanderthals Spoke through Grunts and Animal Sounds

It was long believed that Neanderthals lacked the necessary cognitive capacity and vocal hardware for speech and language, rendering them incapable of little more than a series of grunts. However, recent research has revealed that Neanderthals most likely had a sophisticated form of speech and language not dissimilar to Homo sapiens.

Researchers utilized the latest 3D X-ray imaging technology to examine a 60,000-year-old Neanderthal hyoid bone discovered in the Kebara Cave in Israel in 1989. The hyoid bone is situated centrally in the upper part of the neck, beneath the mandible but above the larynx and is the foundation of speech. So far, it has only been found to exist in humans and Neanderthals. The results showed that in terms of mechanical behavior, the Neanderthal hyoid was basically indistinguishable from our own, strongly suggesting that this key part of the vocal tract was used in exactly the same way.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o589CAu73UM

Myth 3: Neanderthals Did Not Bury their Dead

It was not so long ago that Neanderthals were considered to be little more than primitive cavemen, and they certainly weren’t considered cultured enough to bury their dead. But that belief has been upended by the discovery of a number of Neanderthal burials over the years. The finding of a 50,000-year-old Neanderthal skeleton in a cave in La Chappele-aux Saints, France revealed that the individual had been carefully placed in a grave and great care had been taken to protect his body from scavengers.

One of the most famous Neanderthal child burials was uncovered in 1961 at Roc de Marsal. The grave was in a remarkable state of preservation, considering its age of 70,000 years. It consisted of the body of a child, approximately three years of age, who had been deposited in a natural depression in the ground, and apparently placed into the form of an arc, lying on its stomach, with a hand to its head and legs bent at 90 degrees, then covered with soil. The idea that Neanderthals buried their dead fits with recent findings that they were capable of developing rich cultural practices.

Myth 4: Neanderthals Did Not Have Homes

There has been this idea that Neanderthals did not have an organized use of space, something that has always been attributed to humans. But archaeologists in Italy have found a collapsed rock shelter which has revealed that Neanderthals kept an organized and tidy home with separate spaces for preparing food, sleeping, making tools, and socializing.

The top level appears to have been used for butchering animals because it contained a high concentration of animal remains. The middle level contained the most traces of human occupation and seems to have been a long-term sleeping area. Artifacts were distributed to avoid clutter around the hearth at the back of the cave.

Finally, the bottom level was a place for shorter stays. Animal bones and stone tools were concentrated at the front rather than the rear of the shelter, suggesting that tool production took place there to take advantage of available sunlight.

Myth 5: Neanderthals were Carnivores who Only Ate Raw Meat

Neanderthals were once depicted as ape-like hominids tearing into the raw flesh of freshly hunted animals. However, recent research conducted by the Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies in Barcelona discovered calcified plaque on Neanderthal fossil teeth found in El Sidrón cave in Spain, which suggested that this extinct human species cooked vegetables and consumed bitter-tasting medicinal plants such as chamomile and yarrow.

Sadly, the prejudiced view of Neanderthal inferiority still persists, as reflected in a statement countering that study by researcher Laura Buck from London’s Natural History Museum: “The mistake is to think that because you find plant fragments in teeth that they must have got there because these carnivores – in this case Neanderthals – had consumed them as part of a carefully constructed diet or were taken because it was realised that certain herbs and grasses had health-promoting properties. In fact, they may have got there purely because Neanderthals liked to eat the stomach contents of some of the animals they killed.”

According to Buck, Neanderthals simply weren’t intelligent enough to provide themselves with balanced diets or of treating themselves with health-restoring herbs. However, Buck was unable to present any evidence to support her claims and more recent research shows that Neanderthals ate meat, but obviously included plants in their diet as well.

Neanderthals hunted but also gathered their food. 

(CSIC Spain)

Neanderthal Myth 6: They were Bad Parents

Until recently, the traditional view saw Neanderthal childhood as harsh, difficult, and dangerous. This perspective was based on preconceptions about Neanderthal inferiority and their inability to protect their children. However, recent research has shown this was not the case.

In a study published in 2014 , a team of archaeologists from the Centre for Human Palaeoecology and Evolutionary Origins at the University of York challenged the traditional perspective and claimed that Neanderthal children experienced strong emotional attachments with their immediate social group, Neanderthals would care for sick children for years, and children played a key role in society, particularly in symbolic expression.

The research team drew upon cultural and social evidence to explore the experience of Neanderthal children. They found, for example, that Neanderthal child burials were more elaborate than those of adults, suggesting strong emotional bonds and the important role that children played in the social group.

Myth 7: Neanderthals had no Cultural Expression

It is often cited in academic literature that cultural expression emerged in the Palaeolithic era, around 30,000 years ago, which rules out Neanderthal artisans since this was around the time they died out. However, evidence suggests that culture flourished much earlier, during the time in which Neanderthals roamed the planet.

Rock art in El Castillo cave in Spain, for example, has been dated to around 40,800 years old, which raises the possibility that some of the paintings could have been made by Neanderthals. In addition, evidence suggests that the Neanderthals also had music. The oldest musical instrument ever discovered is believed to be the Divje Babe flute, discovered in a cave in Slovenia in 1995, though this has been disputed.

Some prehistoric cave paintings could have been made by Neanderthals.

 (nicolasprimola /Adobe Stock)



The item is a fragment of the femur of a cave bear which had been pierced with spaced holes and has been dated at 60,000-43,000 years old. Scientists who could not accept the possibility that Neanderthals were playing music rejected the claim and said that the perfectly spaced and neatly carved holes are the result of the bone fragment having been chewed by an animal. However, the general consensus that the Divje Babe flute is actually a musical instrument has been growing as the view of the Neanderthals from subhuman brutes to more sophisticated hominids is changing.

Myth 8: Neanderthals were Incapable of Showing Care and Empathy

Far from being self-centered individuals incapable of looking after anyone but themselves, there is actually much evidence to show that Neanderthals cared for the sick and old in their communities. The "Old Man of La Chapelle" is the name given to the remains of a Neanderthal male found buried in the limestone bedrock of a small cave near La Chapelle-aux-Saints, in France in 1908. He lived 56,000 years ago and was the first relatively complete skeleton of a Neanderthal ever found.

Scientists estimate he was relatively old by the time he died, as bone had re-grown along the gums where he had lost several teeth, perhaps decades before. He lacked so many teeth that he would have needed his food ground down before he was able to eat it. The old man's skeleton indicates that he also suffered from a number of afflictions, including arthritis, and had numerous broken bones, which would have made movement difficult without assistance. The other members of his group would have had to have taken care of him before his death.

Other Neanderthal remains have shown potentially life-threatening injuries which were completely healed, indicating that the individual who suffered the injuries was nursed back to health by another member of his group. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h777yfE39O8

Myth 9: Neanderthals and Humans Did Not Mix

It was once believed that Neanderthals died out before the emergence of Homo sapiens. However, this was revised when archaeological evidence revealed that there was a cross-over of at least several thousand years, if not longer, during which Neanderthals and modern humans walked the Earth together.

But the idea of interbreeding between the two species was still considered almost blasphemous, and it was not thought to have even been biologically possible. However, in recent years, with the development of techniques to analyze ancient DNA, a number of studies have revealed that Neanderthals and humans did interbreed and up to 20 per cent of Neanderthal DNA lives on in modern humans .

Myth 10: Neanderthals were our Direct Ancestors

There is a common misconception, often propagated by mistaken media reporting, that Neanderthals were the direct ancestors of Homo sapiens. In fact, Neanderthals and modern humans existed side by side as two separate groups.

DNA studies have found that the Neanderthals came from a distinct evolutionary line, and are therefore often referred to as the ‘distant cousins’ of humans. Nevertheless, the genetic mixing between the two species which came about as a result of interbreeding undoubtedly contributed to who we are today.

The birth of modern Man

https://chuckincardinal.blogspot.com/

Climate Models May Be Wrong About How Trees Store Carbon

By Columbia Climate School, June 17, 2026

https://scitechdaily.com/climate-models-may-be-wrong-about-how-trees-store-carbon/

Scientists found that a significant share of the carbon oak trees absorb arrives after wood production has already ended. Where that carbon ultimately goes could reshape expectations for forests in a warming world. 

Credit: Shutterstock

A new study reveals that oak trees can keep photosynthesizing for months after growth ends, challenging assumptions about how effectively forests convert absorbed carbon into long-term storage.

A tree can look busy long after it has stopped building itself. Its leaves may still be absorbing sunlight and pulling carbon dioxide from the air, but deep inside the trunk, the season’s wood production may already be over.

That surprising split is the focus of a new study of oak trees published in Science Advances. The researchers found that oaks can keep photosynthesizing late into the year even after their growth has shut down by mid-summer. The finding challenges a common assumption in climate models: that more photosynthesis usually means more tree growth.

A Carbon Sink With a Complication

Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) has often been expected to boost plant photosynthesis, a response sometimes called the carbon fertilization effect. In theory, more CO2 could allow trees to absorb more carbon and grow larger, locking away some of that planet-warming gas in wood.

The new findings complicate that picture. The study suggests that carbon uptake and wood production can become separated, especially when environmental conditions are not favorable for growth. Some of the carbon absorbed after growth stops may go into leaves, roots, temporary starch reserves, soil compounds, or basic cellular maintenance rather than long-term wood storage.

That does not mean the carbon is wasted. Trees use carbon for many essential functions. But from a climate perspective, not all carbon use is equal. Carbon stored in leaves, sugars, or short-lived tissues can return to the atmosphere much faster than carbon stored in wood.

Why Climate Models May Need a Rethink

The results have important implications for how scientists estimate the future role of forests in the carbon cycle.

“Right now, most models assume that if you have photosynthesis, you have growth. We find that’s not the case,” says lead author Mukund Palat Rao, an ecoclimatologist at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, which is part of the Columbia Climate School. “Just because there is more photosynthesis might not necessarily mean more tree growth in the future.”

During photosynthesis, plants use sunlight to convert CO2 and water into sugars, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. In trees, some of that carbon becomes wood in trunks, branches, and roots. Some is used to grow leaves and fruits. Some is stored temporarily as starch. Some is sent belowground in compounds that feed microbes, help trees access nutrients, or defend against pathogens.

Only a portion of that carbon ends up in woody biomass, which is the part most important for long-lasting carbon storage. That makes it essential to understand when photosynthesis actually leads to growth, and when it does not.

“Understanding how photosynthesis and growth are linked is very important from the perspective of understanding how forests will store carbon over long time scales,” says Rao.

Measuring Trees Day by Day

Scientists have suspected for years that carbon uptake and tree growth do not always move in step, but the relationship has been difficult to measure clearly. Tree growth is not a smooth, constant process. A trunk can swell overnight as roots take up water, then shrink during the day as leaves lose water through transpiration. Actual growth emerges from those tiny daily changes over time.

To capture that process, Rao and his colleagues combined several kinds of observations. They used satellite data sensitive to photosynthetic activity at 137 sites across the eastern United States and California. They also analyzed instruments that measured CO2 exchange near treetops hour by hour, along with trunk-mounted sensors that tracked minute changes in tree size in real time. (Trees tend to expand at night as roots take up water, then shrink slightly in daytime as they transpire water, with the long-term trajectory adding up to growth.) The team also used tree ring records and temperature data from 1950 to the present.

Photosynthesis Continued After Growth Ended

At the eastern U.S. sites, oak trees generally added new growth from May through July. Yet their photosynthetic activity continued well into October. About 36% of their annual carbon assimilation through photosynthesis occurred after late-summer growth had already stopped.

The same general pattern appeared in California, although the seasonal timing was different. There, oak trees grew mainly from December through April. Growth slowed in mid-summer and had stopped by August, but photosynthesis continued. About 26% of annual carbon uptake at those sites occurred after growth had ceased.

The result shows that a tree’s leaves can remain active even after the tissues responsible for expanding wood have largely shut down for the year.

Water Stress May Help Explain the Split

The pattern makes biological sense. Tree growth depends on internal water pressure, which helps cells expand and allows new wood to form. When conditions become hot and dry, that pressure drops. Growth can stop quickly, even if the leaves continue photosynthesizing at a reduced rate.

“The moment you have dry and hot conditions, growth activity stops pretty instantly while photosynthesis seems to continue at a slightly decreased rate,” says Rao.

Where Does the Carbon Go?

Some of the carbon absorbed after growth stops may be stored and used to help trees restart growth the following year, according to Rao. Other portions may support new leaves and roots or be oxidized to keep cells alive through winter.

The researchers also found that the disconnect between photosynthesis and growth was strongest in years when local weather swung sharply between wet and dry extremes. Those kinds of unstable conditions are expected to become more common as the climate changes.

Rao and his colleagues are now investigating whether the same pattern appears in other tree species, ecosystems, and regions. He expects the strength of the disconnect to vary depending on forest type and climate, but the broader question remains open.

“I don’t really have answers yet,” he says. “There are many questions still left to address.”

The Life of Earth

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This Copper Drug Clears Alzheimer’s Brain Toxins and Boosts Memory

By Monash U., June 17, 2026

https://scitechdaily.com/this-copper-drug-clears-alzheimers-brain-toxins-and-boosts-memory/

Researchers found that a copper-based drug restored the brain’s ability to clear toxic Alzheimer’s proteins, dramatically reducing amyloid buildup and improving memory in laboratory tests. 

Credit: Shutterstock

A copper-based drug helped the brain flush out Alzheimer’s toxins, cutting plaque buildup and improving memory in a promising new study.

Scientists at Monash University have identified a promising new approach to tackling Alzheimer’s disease. In laboratory studies, a copper-delivering drug significantly lowered levels of toxic proteins linked to the disease while also improving long-term spatial memory.

The findings, published in ACS Chemical Neuroscience, suggest the compound Cu(ATSM) may help restore an important brain cleanup process that breaks down in Alzheimer’s disease. Researchers say the treatment repairs a key waste removal pump at the blood-brain barrier, opening the door to a potential new strategy for addressing neurovascular dysfunction associated with the condition.

Repairing the Brain’s Waste Removal System

Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid-beta, a toxic protein that builds up in the brain. Under normal conditions, these proteins are transported out of the brain and into the bloodstream through the blood-brain barrier.

A major part of that process relies on specialized transport proteins known as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) pumps. In people with Alzheimer’s disease, these pumps become less effective, allowing harmful proteins to accumulate inside the brain.

Lead author Dr. Jae Pyun from the Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics theme at the Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (MIPS) said the treatment works by engaging the brain’s blood vessels to help reduce toxic protein levels, leading to measurable benefits in behavior and cognition.

“This is the first study to show that Cu(ATSM) can increase the abundance of P-gp clearance pumps in an Alzheimer’s model, by 24.1 percent, effectively linking the repair of the blood-brain barrier to a reduction in toxic proteins and improved cognitive function,” Dr. Pyun said.

“By improving the pumps, the brain can finally clear out the trapped waste. Over 56 days, the treatment reduced toxic amyloid-beta by 42 percent and improved spatial learning by nearly 44 percent.”

Lead author Dr Jae Pyun (left) and senior author Professor Joseph Nicolazzo (right). 

Credit: Monash University



Potential Path Toward Human Trials

Senior author Professor Joseph Nicolazzo, Director of the Centre for Drug Candidate Optimisation at MIPS, said the drug could move relatively quickly toward clinical testing for Alzheimer’s because it has already undergone safety assessments for other neurological conditions.

“Cu(ATSM) is a copper compound with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties that has already progressed to clinical testing for conditions like Parkinson’s and ALS,” Professor Nicolazzo said.

“Because reducing amyloid burden is clinically proven to improve functional outcomes, these preclinical results strongly support the rationale for testing this drug in early symptomatic Alzheimer’s disease.”

How Does the Brain Clear the Proteins?

Although the researchers observed a substantial reduction in amyloid buildup, they are still investigating the exact pathways that allow these proteins to leave the brain.

In addition to repairing the blood-brain barrier, the team believes the copper treatment may also stimulate microglia, the brain’s resident immune cells. These cells could help break down and remove the toxic plaques that contribute to Alzheimer’s disease.

Future research will focus on identifying the precise mechanisms responsible for clearing amyloid-beta from the brain into the bloodstream. The current results provide strong support for further investigation of biometal therapies such as Cu(ATSM) as potential treatments for blood vessel dysfunction and memory decline associated with Alzheimer’s.

Growing Need for New Alzheimer’s Treatments

Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia continue to pose a major global health challenge. In Australia, dementia recently became the nation’s leading cause of death, surpassing coronary heart disease.

With populations aging and dementia related deaths continuing to rise, researchers emphasize the urgent need for therapies that can slow or prevent cognitive decline.

The study was led by Dr. Jae Pyun and included co-authors Pranav Runwal, Oliver Fuller, Casey Egan, Professor Mark Febbraio, Associate Professor Jennifer Short, and Professor Joseph Nicolazzo from the Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Collaborators also included Dr Asif Noor, Celeste Mawal, Professor Paul Donnelly, and Professor Ashley Bush from the University of Melbourne.

The Life of Earth

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Dangerous Fault Lines in California at Highest Pressure in 1,000 Years, Scientists Warn

18 June 2026, By C Cassella

https://www.sciencealert.com/dangerous-fault-lines-in-california-at-highest-pressure-in-1000-years-scientists-warn

Stress accumulating in the southern San Andreas fault.

 (Burkhard et. al., J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 2026)

It's called California's Big One for a reason.

For more than a century, tectonic pressure has steadily and silently been building within the San Andreas fault line and the nearby San Jacinto fault line.

Now, a new computer model designed by researchers from the US and Europe suggests that tectonic pressures in this area are "unusually high".

"Our results show that stress levels on multiple fault segments are now at or above the highest values seen in the past millennium," says lead author Liliane Burkhard, a geophysicist from the University of Bern, Switzerland.

"Right now, with stress at historically high levels across the region and more than 160 years elapsed since the last major rupture, the system is in a critically loaded state."

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSz9dH99i_E

Elevated pressure doesn't guarantee an earthquake in the near future, but it has scientists like Burkhard concerned.

The San Andreas and San Jacinto fault lines meet at Cajon Pass, just northeast of Los Angeles. Together, these two fault systems are responsible for 90 percent of the tectonic slipping that occurs between the North American plate and the Pacific plate in Southern California.

That's creating an immense amount of pressure – estimated to be 2.8 MPa on the Mojave South segment and 3.6 MPa on the San Jacinto Bernardino segment.

In the past 160 years, both of these fault lines have been scarily silent.

If something doesn't give, geophysicists fear an imminent, large earthquake that could cause major damage to Southern California.

The stress accumulating in some parts of the southern San Andreas fault is greater than it has ever been in the past 1,000 years, according to new modeling. 

(Burkhard et. al., J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 2026)



That includes densely populated areas like Los Angeles County, Ventura County, Orange County, San Diego County, the Palm Springs–Indio metropolitan area, and even as far south as Tijuana.

It's a disaster waiting to happen, but when it will happen is the pressing question.

"This is not a prediction of when an earthquake will happen," Burkhard says.

"However, studies like this are important contributions to national and global earthquake hazard research in that we are using rigorous, quantitative science to better understand the risk facing millions of people."

The fault lines modeled in Southern California. The main San Andreas Fault System (SAF) is traced in purple and the San Jacinto Fault is traced in blue. They meet at Cajon Pass. 

(Burkhard et. al.,J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 2026)

The point where the two fault lines meet is called Cajon Pass, home to highways, railways, and energy corridors that serve the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area.

What happens here, between the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains, could foretell the future of the region.

Scientists think of it like an "earthquake gate". If it opens during a 'slip' event, it could include both fault line systems, causing a larger and more complex disaster.

To investigate further, Burkhard and colleagues joined up with researchers from Northern Arizona University, the University of Bern, the US Geological Survey, and the University of California, San Diego.

They designed a physics-based computer model to better understand the history of fault lines in the region, and how we got to where we are today.

The international team fed 1,000 years of earthquake history data from the region into their model, and then ran simulations.

In some past earthquakes in this region, the 'gate' appeared to be closed, which meant ruptures stopped at Cajon Pass and were contained to one fault line. In other scenarios, it was open. When it was open, there was a joint rupture that typically resulted in a larger and more complex earthquake.

"The conditions that determine whether the 'earthquake gate' at Cajon Pass opens or stays closed appear to be related to how closely the stress levels on the two fault systems are aligned with each other at the time of rupture," explains Burkhard.

Of course, these computer models aren't perfect reflections of reality.

However, they help provide information that can be critical for hazard assessments, infrastructure planning, and emergency preparedness, says Burkhard.

At this point, that's really all we can do. Gather as much information on the region as we can, so we are best prepared when the fault lines rupture.

"What we can say is that the system is critically stressed, and that physics-based models like this one give us a clearer picture of the range of scenarios we should be prepared for," concludes Burkhard.

The Life of Earth

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Your Gut Microbes May Decide How Many Calories You Really Absorb

By R. Harth, Arizona State U., June 13, 2026

https://scitechdaily.com/your-gut-microbes-may-decide-how-many-calories-you-really-absorb/

The DAMM model combines human digestion and gut microbiome activity to better estimate how many calories people actually absorb from food. It performed better than traditional methods and revealed important differences between high-fiber and Western diets. 

Credit: Shutterstock

Researchers have created a model that follows food beyond traditional calorie calculations, incorporating the role of gut microbes in digestion.

Food labels make calorie counts look straightforward. The number listed per serving is calculated from the food’s fat, carbohydrate, and protein content.

In reality, the digestive process is much more complex. As food moves through the body, it interacts with trillions of microbes in the gut that can affect how many calories are ultimately absorbed.

Researchers at Arizona State University have developed a mathematical model called DAMM, short for digestion, absorption, and microbial metabolism, to better capture this process. The model tracks food as it moves through the digestive system, estimating what is absorbed by the body, what reaches the colon, and how gut microbes transform the remaining material into substances that are either absorbed or eliminated.

The researchers say the model could improve understanding of obesity, diabetes, and other metabolic disorders by revealing how different diets influence both the body and the microbial communities living in the colon.
Gut Microbes Change the Calorie Equation

With further development, DAMM could help health care providers create more personalized nutrition plans.

“Digestion is not just a human process—it is a collaboration between our bodies and trillions of microbes living in the gut,” said Professor Rosa Krajmalnik-Brown. “DAMM gives us a powerful new way to quantify how those microbial partners contribute to human health and energy balance and also points at the importance of properly feeding our gut microbes.”

Taylor Davis is an ASU graduate research assistant. 

Credit: The Biodesign Institute at ASU



Krajmalnik-Brown directs the Biodesign Center for Health Through Microbiomes and is a professor in ASU’s School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment.

The research team also included Professor Bruce Rittmann, director of the Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology and a Regents Professor of environmental engineering at ASU, along with lead author Taylor Davis, a graduate research assistant. The project was conducted in collaboration with the AdventHealth Translational Research Institute in Orlando, Florida.

Introducing DAMM: A New Digestive Modeling Tool

For more than 100 years, scientists have used Atwater factors to estimate how much energy people obtain from food. This method calculates calories by multiplying the amounts of protein, carbohydrates, and fat by their average metabolizable energy values.

While widely used, the approach does not account for the role of gut microbes. It cannot capture how different diets influence microbial activity or how microbes convert fiber and other undigested material into compounds such as short-chain fatty acids in the colon.

The new work builds on a controlled feeding study that explored the role of the gut microbiome in human energy balance. The gut microbiome consists of the bacteria and other microorganisms that live throughout the digestive tract.

Why Fiber-Rich Diets Affect Energy Absorption

In that study, healthy adults followed one of two carefully designed diets. One was a microbiome-enhancer diet rich in fiber and resistant starch (less processed foods and foods with larger particle size). The other reflected a more typical Western diet with lower levels of those components (more processed foods and smaller particle size). Participants eating the Western diet absorbed about 116 more calories per day than those on the high-fiber diet, despite reporting no increase in hunger among the high-fiber group.

Bruce Rittmann directs the Biodesign Swette Center for Environmental Biotechnology. 

Credit: The Biodesign Institute at ASU



“What is truly unique about the DAMM model is that it quantitatively links human metabolism to the metabolism of the microorganisms in the colon in a way that matches the results from the clinical study and provides fundamental insight into how the microbial community works in partnership with the human host,” Rittmann said.

The model begins by breaking a diet into its protein, carbohydrate, and fat components. It then estimates how much usable energy from those nutrients is absorbed in the upper digestive tract.

DAMM next tracks the remaining material into the colon, where gut microbes break down food that escaped earlier digestion. This process generates short-chain fatty acids that can be absorbed and used as an additional energy source. The model also includes methane production by microbes known as methanogens.

How DAMM Tracks Human and Microbial Metabolism

Microbial activity contributed a meaningful share of total energy. According to the model, short-chain fatty acids absorbed from the colon provided about 140 calories per day on average, representing roughly 7.4% of total usable energy. About 85% of usable energy came from the upper gastrointestinal tract, while the remaining 15% came from the lower gastrointestinal tract, where microbes play a major role.

When the researchers compared DAMM with data from the controlled diet study, the model estimated calorie absorption more accurately than the traditional Atwater method. The standard approach tended to underestimate absorbed calories, while DAMM more closely matched the measured results.

The model also identified important differences between the high-fiber and lower-fiber diets. The microbiome-enhancer diet delivered more fermentable material to the colon, giving microbes additional fuel to produce short-chain fatty acids.

Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Calorie Absorption

DAMM projected greater short-chain fatty acid production on the microbiome-enhancer diet, matching the pattern observed in the clinical study, where higher levels of these compounds were detected in blood serum and fecal samples.

Short-chain fatty acids are not simply byproducts of digestion. They are produced when gut microbes ferment fiber and other food components that escape earlier absorption. Some of these fatty acids are then absorbed by the body and contribute to its energy supply. Even so, they represent only one part of the overall calorie equation. Although the microbiome-enhancer diet increased microbial activity and short-chain fatty acid production, it still resulted in fewer calories being absorbed overall.

DAMM allows researchers to separate these processes, distinguishing what the body absorbs directly, what gut microbes produce, and what is ultimately absorbed or excreted.

“The DAMM model is more than just a tool for characterizing diet,” Davis said. “It’s a framework designed to evolve. As we discover more on how diet, metabolism, and the microbes interact, the new insights can be incorporated into the model, allowing it to grow with us as we learn.”

The Life of Earth

https://chuckincardinal.blogspot.com/

This Surprising Hair Type Could Hold the Key to Chronic Itch Relief

By U. of Michigan, June 16, 2026

https://scitechdaily.com/this-surprising-hair-type-could-hold-the-key-to-chronic-itch-relief/

Researchers at the University of Michigan have uncovered a previously hidden biological pathway that appears to play a key role in how certain touch-sensitive hairs trigger itch sensations. 

Credit: Shutterstock

A newly identified sensory pathway links fine hairs to itch sensations, revealing an unexpected biological system that may contribute to chronic itching disorders and provide new targets for treatment.

An itch can seem simple, but scientists are finding that the sensation is far more complex than it appears. Researchers at the University of Michigan have now uncovered a previously unknown sensory pathway in mice that links tiny touch-sensitive hairs to the urge to scratch. The discovery sheds light on a form of itch that has remained largely mysterious and could eventually help researchers tackle chronic itching disorders that affect millions of people.

“Itch is one of the major symptoms in most chronic skin inflammation patients,” said Bo Duan, associate professor in the Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology. “What we’ve discovered is a pathway that we believe plays a very important role for both acute and chronic itch sensation.”

The study identified a previously unrecognized type of hair in mice, called vellus-like hairs, along with a specialized group of sensory neurons that detect movement of those hairs and relay itch signals to the nervous system. The findings were published in Neuron and supported in part by the National Institutes of Health.

Scientists have long understood how chemical irritants such as mosquito bites, poison ivy, and allergens can trigger itching. Mechanical itch is different. Instead of being caused by chemicals, it arises from physical stimulation of the skin or hair.

A Hidden Sensory System

The newly identified hairs resemble human vellus hairs, the fine, lightly pigmented hairs commonly known as peach fuzz. While these hairs cover much of the human body, researchers have known surprisingly little about their role in sensation.

To investigate, the team studied mice with chronic skin inflammation, a condition similar to eczema in humans. Mice with functioning sensory neurons connected to the vellus-like hairs scratched normally. However, animals lacking those neurons, or those in which the neurons had been disabled, showed a dramatic reduction in scratching behavior.

The results suggest that these neurons are a key part of a dedicated pathway that drives mechanical itch.

“We need a new pathway to target if we want to treat chronic itch,” Duan said. “And our research suggests that this population of neurons could be a target in the future. We have ongoing projects looking at this.”

Clues That Humans May Share the Same Mechanism

The researchers cannot directly test the pathway in people, but several findings suggest a similar system may exist in humans.

Humans possess the genes needed to produce these touch-sensitive neurons. The team also identified proteins in mice that help carry itch signals from hairs to the spinal cord. When the researchers exposed human neurons grown in culture to those same proteins, the cells responded.

“Our study indicates that humans may have this same kind of mechanism to transmit mechanical itch,” Duan said. “It also reveals that the body has a dedicated system for this type of sensation.”

The Simple Experiment Anyone Can Try

One of Duan’s favorite demonstrations highlights just how sensitive these tiny hairs can be.

Take a tissue and twist one corner into a fine point. Then gently brush it across the small hairs around your lips. Avoid the thicker terminal hairs and focus on the fine peach fuzz. Under the right conditions, the sensation can trigger an unmistakable itch.

“Humans and animals experience this kind of itch, but no one knew the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind it,” Duan said.

The new study helps explain why that happens. It identifies a pathway that links movement of specialized hairs to neural activity that can ultimately produce the urge to scratch.

Solving a Century-Old Mystery

The story of these hairs actually began more than 100 years ago.

Scientists had previously noted that certain vellus-like hairs in mice, particularly those found behind the ears, beneath the lips, and near the paws, appeared unusual. Yet despite those early observations, the hairs remained largely overlooked by sensory researchers.

Part of the challenge was methodological. Researchers had no established way to measure mechanical itch in mice.

“A mouse can’t say that it’s itchy,” Duan said. “But it will scratch.”

To overcome that problem, the team developed its own testing approach. Researchers gently stroked the animals’ vellus-like hairs using a small loop of thread and monitored their responses.

After identifying the neurons involved, the scientists genetically modified those cells so they could be activated by blue light. When the researchers shined blue light onto the animals’ skin, the mice scratched in much the same way they did during physical stimulation. The experiment provided strong evidence that the neurons were directly responsible for generating the itch response.

Why We Are Not Constantly Scratching

The discovery also raises an obvious question. If fine hairs are capable of triggering itch, why do humans not spend all day scratching?

The answer appears to lie deeper within the nervous system.

Although vellus hairs cover most of the body (with some notable exceptions like the palms of our hands), the spinal cord contains specialized “gating” circuits that filter incoming sensory information. These neural circuits help suppress mechanical itch signals before they reach conscious awareness.

Without those built-in filters, ordinary sensations such as clothing brushing against the skin, a breeze across the face, or a strand of hair moving out of place could become overwhelming sources of irritation.

Researchers suspect the system may have evolved as a defense mechanism. Vellus hairs are particularly concentrated around the mouth and ears in both mice and humans, locations where insects, parasites, and other small pests could pose a threat. Detecting subtle movements in those areas may have helped mammals identify unwanted intruders before they could cause harm.

The Life of Earth

https://chuckincardinal.blogspot.com/

Bumble Bees Solve an Insect Version of a Famous Primate Intelligence Test

By U. of Oulu, Finland, June 16, 2026

https://scitechdaily.com/bumble-bees-solve-an-insect-version-of-a-famous-primate-intelligence-test/

A bumble bee standing on a ball beneath the artificial flower containing a reward, illustrating the experimental solution. 

Credit: Mikko Törmänen / University of Oulu

Bumble bees demonstrated an unexpected ability to solve a novel object-based challenge without training.

A bee’s brain is smaller than a sesame seed, yet in a new experiment, some bumble bees appeared to solve a problem that required more than simple instinct. They had to move an object into position, climb onto it, and use it to reach a reward, even though they had never been taught that solution.

More than 100 years ago, psychologist Wolfgang Köhler became famous for experiments showing that chimpanzees could solve unfamiliar problems by using objects in new ways. In one classic setup, chimps stacked boxes to reach a banana that was otherwise out of reach. Those studies helped shape the idea that insight, the sudden linking of separate pieces of information into a useful solution, was mainly a feature of large-brained animals.

Now, researchers from the University of Oulu, the University of Helsinki, and the University of Turku in Finland report that bumble bees can show a strikingly similar kind of flexibility.

Solving a Problem Without Training

In the study, published in Science, bumble bees (Bombus terrestris) were presented with a task they had never encountered before. The insects first learned that a blue artificial flower contained a reward. During testing, the flower was placed on the ceiling of a transparent arena, making it inaccessible.

To reach the reward, the bees had to come up with a new solution. They needed to move a ball beneath the flower and then climb onto it to reach the target. The bees had never been trained to perform this sequence of actions.

“This is essentially an insect version of the classic ‘box-and-banana’ problem,” says senior author Olli Loukola, Docent at the University of Oulu. “The animal must realize that an object can be repositioned and then used as a tool to reach an otherwise inaccessible goal. What stands out about the result is that this kind of spontaneous problem-solving is now demonstrated in an insect.”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FtqLxkolXos

This movie shows a bee solving the task in Experiment 3. The beginning of the video (habituation phase, without the ball present) is shown at accelerated speed. Following habituation, the arena is briefly illuminated with red light (not visible to bees) while the ball is placed between two visually occluding compartments. During the test phase, the bee moves the ball toward the side behind which the flower is located, positions it beneath the flower, climbs onto the ball, and contacts the flower on the arena ceiling. Video: Olli Loukola / University of Oulu. 

Credit: Video: Olli Loukola / University of Oulu

“What makes this behavior especially remarkable is that the bees had never been trained to roll the ball. This was a completely new challenge. Their behavior appeared goal-directed with successful individuals showing more directed movement patterns,” says lead author Akshaye Bhambore from the University of Oulu.

The bees were never taught to place the ball beneath the flower. Instead, they learned only two separate facts: that the blue flower contained a reward and that the ball was a movable, harmless object.

When confronted with the new task, many bees combined those previous experiences in a way that went beyond anything they had been trained to do.

“Another important aspect is that our bees were fully naïve,” Loukola adds. “In many previous studies of insight-like problem-solving, the animals have had extensive experience with objects, test environments, or other problem-solving tasks. Here, the bees had never been trained to use the ball to reach the flower, and they had no previous experience with this kind of solution. We also designed the experiments to rule out simpler explanations such as accidental success, play behavior, trial-and-error learning, or direct visual guidance.”

Ruling Out Simpler Explanations

The researchers also carried out a series of control experiments designed to eliminate simpler explanations for the bees’ success.

In some of the more challenging tests, the flower was hidden while the bees moved the ball. This prevented them from simply guiding the ball toward a visible target. Even so, the bees were still able to move the ball to the correct location.

“By analyzing the bees’ behavior across unusually stringent control experiments, we could show that they were not simply reacting to visual stimuli or moving the ball randomly,” says lead author Bhambore.

“One moment the animal is exploring seemingly without direction, and the next it performs a highly efficient sequence of actions leading directly to the solution,” says co-author Ece Nur Akmeşe from the University of Helsinki. “Watching the bees solving the task was genuinely fascinating.”

What the Findings Mean

The findings add to a growing body of evidence that bees possess more advanced cognitive abilities than their small brains might suggest. Previous studies have shown that bees can learn tool use from one another, solve puzzle-like challenges, cooperate, and adapt their behavior to changing situations.

The researchers stress, however, that the results do not mean bees possess human-like reasoning or consciousness.

“We are not claiming that bees think like humans,” says Loukola, who is currently a Senior Researcher at the University of Turku. “But our findings show that miniature brains can generate flexible solutions to novel problems in ways we are only beginning to understand.”

The study suggests that spontaneous, goal-directed problem-solving can arise in animals with brains far smaller than those of the vertebrates that have traditionally been the focus of insight research.

“For over a century, spontaneous object-based problem-solving has mostly been studied in vertebrates,” says Loukola. “Our study suggests insects may belong in that conversation too.”

The Life of Earth

https://chuckincardinal.blogspot.com/

Watch The Moon Cover Venus in a Rare Daytime Sky Event This Week

16 June 2026, By D. Dickinson, Universe Today

https://www.sciencealert.com/watch-the-moon-cover-venus-in-a-rare-daytime-sky-event-this-week

The Moon and Venus seen in 2023 from Kuwait City.

 (YASSER AL-ZAYYAT/AFP/Getty Images)

If you're like us, you've been following the close conjunction of Jupiter and Venus in the June dusk sky.

Next week, the Moon enters the evening scene, and actually occults (passes in front of) the planet Venus in what promises to be one of the top skywatching events for 2026.

It's rare to see the two brightest natural objects in the sky (after the Sun) meet up in the daytime sky.

It's also rare to see the Moon greet Venus a good distance from the Sun. Venus never strays farther than 47 degrees from the Sun as seen from the Earth.

The Moon approaches Venus on the 17th. 

(Stellarium)



This month's occultation sees Venus 38 degrees from the Sun, just under two months from greatest eastern (dusk) elongation on August 15th.

The event occurs on the afternoon of Wednesday, June 17th, centered on 16:40 EDT (20:40 UTC).

The occultation transpires over northeastern South America under dark skies after sunset, and over the Caribbean, the contiguous United States (CONUS), northern Mexico, and southern Canada under daytime skies before sunset.

The Moon is an 11 percent illuminated, waxing crescent as it approaches Venus.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtiKxO8xIbY&t=68s

The Moon will take 29 seconds to cover the 74 percent illuminated, 15″ disk of Venus. Venus shines at about -4th magnitude during the event.

The Moon passes New phase on June 15th, and slides 2.5 degrees north northeast of Mercury on the evening of the 16th. Mercury also reaches greatest elongation 24.5 degrees east of the Sun just one day prior.

If you've never seen Mercury for yourself, this coming week is a good time to try and cross the innermost world off of your skywatching life-list.

The phases of the Moon for June.

 (NASA/JPL-Caltech)

This is actually the first of three lunar occultations of Venus for 2026. The other two occur on September 14th in Southeast Asia and on November 7th at the southern tip of South America.

Venus is the one planet that's prominent enough to see during a daytime occultation.

Here's a strange fact: the Moon actually has a much lower albedo than Venus, with a reflectivity of less than 14 percent, versus 70 percent for the Venusian cloud tops. Up close, the lunar surface resembles worn asphalt.

Concentrating what little reflected light the Moon does return into a small patch of sky translates its dull gray into pearly white in the eye's view.

But wait until dusk, and you'll see an encore performance, as the slender waxing crescent Moon also occults the open star cluster Messier 44 (Praesepe) in the heart of the constellation Cancer.

This occurs just scant hours after the Venus event. This favors the southeastern US at dusk. Venus follows suit, transiting just north of the cluster on June 19th.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rCXZeE9_K6s

This is one of the final favorable lunar occultations of Venus for the CONUS until 2029-2031.

Seeing Venus in the daytime requires persistence. A deep blue high-contrast sky will help.

The event will be well-suited to video capture, but beware of autofocus mode, which often stubbornly refuses to lock onto the daytime Moon. A wide-field view of the Moon paired with Venus should display the two nicely, as the planet slips behind the dark limb of the Moon.

The International Occultation Timing Association (IOTA) has a list of ingress/egress times for select locations in the path, and Stellarium can help you zero in on exact times for your site.

Don't miss the 'Great American Occultation,' as a great opportunity to do a little daytime sidewalk astronomy with friends.

The Life of Earth

https://chuckincardinal.blogspot.com/