Study Challenges Long-Held Beliefs: Scavenging Carcasses May Have Made Us Human

BY CATALAN INST. OF HUMAN PALEOECOLOGY AND SOCIAL EVOLUTION, NOV. 28, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/study-challenges-long-held-beliefs-scavenging-carcasses-may-have-made-us-human/

A new study proposes that scavenging was a central, enduring force in human evolution, reshaping how we understand the origins of our survival strategies.

 Credit: Shutterstock

A study with IPHES CERCA redefines the role of scavenging in human evolution and shows that it was an efficient strategy that complemented hunting and gathering.

A research group from IPHES-CERCA took part in a project led by the National Research Center on Human Evolution (CENIEH) that revisits how consuming carrion shaped human history. The study, published in the Journal of Human Evolution, examines scavenging from the earliest hominins to modern times and concludes that feeding on carcasses was a consistent and essential survival strategy throughout our evolution.

Carrion refers to the decaying flesh of dead animals, typically in progressive stages of decomposition.

The work included contributions from Dr. Jordi Rosell, a professor at the Universitat Rovira i Virgili and researcher at IPHES-CERCA, and Dr. Maite Arilla, also from IPHES-CERCA, along with collaborators from CENIEH, IREC-CSIC, IPE-CSIC, Universidad Miguel Hernández, and the universities of Alicante, Granada, and Málaga.

Ecological benefits and evolutionary advantages
The authors explain that scavenging provided early humans with important benefits. It allowed them to gather food with much less effort than hunting and became especially useful during times when other resources were

Graphical abstract of the study. 

Credit: Carmen Cañizares

The team also points out that humans possess several features that make scavenging effective. “The acidic pH of the human stomach may act as a defense against pathogens and toxins, and the risk of infection decreased considerably when we began to use fire for cooking. Moreover, our ability to travel long distances with low energy expenditure was key to finding food opportunities,” they explain.
Tools, cooperation, and behavioral adaptations

Language and stone tools —even the simplest ones— facilitated collective organization to locate carcasses and gain access to meat, fat, and bone marrow. This combination of factors made scavenging a highly efficient activity, complementary to hunting and plant gathering.

In the 1960s, the discovery in Africa of the earliest evidence that ancient hominins ate meat sparked an intense debate: did they hunt these animals, or did they simply exploit the carcasses they found? For decades, scavenging was considered a “primitive” stage that humans had left behind once they learned to hunt. However, current studies have completely overturned this view: all carnivorous species consume carrion to some extent, and many modern hunter-gatherer groups continue to practice scavenging as part of their subsistence behavior.

The authors conclude that scavenging was not merely a transitional stage but a fundamental and recurrent strategy throughout human evolution, complementary to hunting and plant gathering. Ultimately, eating carrion (far from being a marginal behavior) was key to making us human.

The birth of modern Man

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750 Million at Risk: New Study Warns Extreme Water Scarcity Is Closer Than We Think

BY INST. FOR BASIC SCIENCE, NOV. 29, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/750-million-at-risk-new-study-warns-extreme-water-scarcity-is-closer-than-we-think/

Illustration of extreme drought conditions and projected water shortage in urban areas. 

Credit: Institute for Basic Science

Climate simulations reveal that Day Zero Drought conditions are approaching rapidly worldwide, putting vast populations at risk of severe water scarcity.

A new study in Nature Communications from researchers at the IBS Center for Climate Physics (ICCP) at Pusan National University in the Republic of Korea finds that global warming is speeding up the likelihood of multi-year droughts. These prolonged dry periods can push regions toward severe water shortages, putting pressure on drinking water supplies, agriculture, and communities around the world within the next few decades.

To investigate this risk, the team used state-of-the-art climate model simulations to estimate when local water demand will surpass the available supply from rainfall, rivers, and reservoirs. This tipping point is known as the Day Zero Drought (DZD). Recent close calls in Cape Town (South Africa) in 2018 and Chennai (India) in 2019 have already demonstrated how vulnerable cities are to running out of water.

Identifying when and where these thresholds will occur is essential for planning effective water management for both urban and rural regions. According to the study, DZD events are projected to rise rapidly in the coming years, happening far earlier than once expected.
Climate model projections reveal accelerating Day Zero Drought events

The team relied on climate simulations based on the SSP3-7.0 and SSP2-4.5 greenhouse gas scenarios. By examining prolonged rainfall shortages, declines in river flow, and growing water use, the researchers identified clear DZD hotspots across the Mediterranean, southern Africa, and sections of North America. The analysis shows that cities in these regions are especially at risk.

Time of First Emergence (ToFE) of Day Zero Drought (DZD) conditions and global hotspot regions. 

(a) Spatial distribution of the decadal ToFE of DZD events across the globe from 1900 to 2100. Color shading indicates the first decade during which DZD becomes statistically attributable to anthropogenic climate change, defined as the first decade in which the Fraction of Attributable Risk is greater than 0.99 (FAR ≥ 0.99). Gray regions indicate grid cells where no DZD event attributable to anthropogenic climate change is projected to emerge before 2100.

 (b) Circular diagram illustrating the temporal distribution of ToFE by decades. The color scale indicates the percentages of DZD grid cells (land areas) experiencing their ToFE distribution in each decade from 1900 to 2100. It provides a temporal overview of how the ToFE is distributed over time and the trends in DZD emergence.

 Credit: Institute for Basic Science

According to the simulations, DZDs are likely to emerge in 35% of the vulnerable regions already within the next 15 years (Figure 1). By the end of this century, DZD conditions could threaten about 750 million people globally, including 470 million city residents and 290 million people in rural areas. The Mediterranean region is projected to have the highest urban exposure, whereas Northern and Southern Africa and parts of Asia face the most severe rural impacts.

Projected impacts on reservoirs and global communities

“Our study shows that global warming causes and accelerates Day Zero Drought conditions worldwide. Even if we meet the 1.5°C target, hundreds of millions of people will still face unprecedented water shortages,” says PhD candidate Ms. Ravinandrasana, first author of the study.

“According to our calculations, and due to the increasing severity of hydrological stress, 14% of major water reservoirs could dry out already during their first DZD events, with severe impacts on people’s livelihoods,” says corresponding author Prof. Christian Frankze from the IBS Center for Climate Physics.

“Day Zero Droughts are no longer a distant scenario: they are already happening. Without immediate adaptation and sustainable water management, hundreds of millions of people are likely to face unprecedented future water shortages,” says Ms. Ravinandrasana.

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Chernobyl Fungus Appears to Have Evolved an Incredible Ability

30 Nov. 2025, By M. STARR

https://www.sciencealert.com/chernobyl-fungus-appears-to-have-evolved-an-incredible-ability

Cladosporium sphaerospermum, cultured at the Coimbra University Hospital Centre in Portugal.

 (Rui Tomé/Atlas of Mycology, used with permission)

The Chernobyl exclusion zone may be off-limits to humans, but ever since the Unit Four reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded nearly 40 years ago, other forms of life have not only moved in but survived, adapted, and appeared to thrive.

Part of that may be the lack of humans… but for one organism, at least, the ionizing radiation lingering inside the reactor's surrounding structures may be an advantage.

There, clinging to the interior walls of one of the most radioactive buildings on Earth, scientists have found a strange black fungus curiously living its best life.

That fungus is called Cladosporium sphaerospermum, and some scientists think its dark pigment – melanin – may allow it to harness ionizing radiation through a process similar to the way plants harness light for photosynthesis. This proposed mechanism is even referred to as radiosynthesis.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VRk_Q_g3Ysc

But here's the really funky thing about C. sphaerospermum: Although scientists have shown that the fungus flourishes in the presence of ionizing radiation, no one has been able to pin down how or why. Radiosynthesis is a theory, one that's difficult to prove.

The mystery began back in the late 1990s, when a team led by microbiologist Nelli Zhdanova of the Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences embarked on a field survey in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone to find out what life, if any, could be found in the shelter surrounding the ruined reactor.

There, they were stunned to find a whole community of fungi, documenting an astonishing 37 species. Notably, these organisms tended to be dark-hued to black, rich with the pigment melanin.

C. sphaerospermum dominated the samples, while also demonstrating some of the highest levels of radioactive contamination.

As surprising as the discovery was, what happened next deepened the intrigue.

Radiopharmacologist Ekaterina Dadachova and immunologist Arturo Casadevall — both with posts at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in the US – led a team of scientists that found exposing C. sphaerospermum to ionizing radiation doesn't harm the fungus the way it would other organisms.

Melanized C. sphaerospermum.

 (Rui Tomé/Atlas of Mycology, used with permission)



Ionizing radiation describes emissions of particles powerful enough to knock electrons from their atoms, turning them into their ionic forms.

That sounds pretty benign on paper, but in practice, ionization can break apart molecules, interfering with biochemical reactions and even shredding DNA. None of that is a good time for a human, although it can be exploited to destroy cancer cells, which are particularly vulnerable to its effects.

However, C. sphaerospermum seemed strangely resistant and even grew better when bathed in ionizing radiation. Other experiments showed ionizing radiation changed the behavior of fungal melanin – an intriguing observation that warranted further investigation.

The follow-up paper by Dadachova and Casadevall in 2008 is where they first proposed a biological pathway similar to photosynthesis.

The fungus – and others like it – appeared to be harvesting ionizing radiation and converting it into energy, with melanin performing a similar function to the light-absorbing pigment chlorophyll.

At the same time, the melanin behaves as a protective shield against the more harmful effects of that radiation.

C. sphaerospermum under the microscope.

 (Rui Tomé/Atlas of Mycology, used with permission)



This appears to be supported by the findings of a 2022 paper, in which scientists describe the results of taking C. sphaerospermum into space and strapping it to the exterior of the ISS, exposing it to the full brunt of cosmic radiation.

There, sensors placed beneath the petri dish showed that a smaller amount of radiation penetrated through the fungi than through an agar-only control.

The aim of that paper was not to demonstrate or investigate radiosynthesis, but to explore the fungus's potential as a radiation shield for space missions, which is a cool idea. But, as of that paper, we still don't know what the fungus is actually doing.

Scientists have been unable to demonstrate carbon fixation dependent on ionizing radiation, metabolic gain from ionizing radiation, or a defined energy-harvesting pathway.

"Actual radiosynthesis, however, remains to be shown, let alone the reduction of carbon compounds into forms with higher energy content or fixation of inorganic carbon driven by ionizing radiation," writes a team led by engineer Nils Averesch of Stanford University.

The idea of radiosynthesis is so cool – like something out of science fiction. But it's maybe even cooler that this weird fungus is doing something we don't understand to neutralize something so dangerous to humans.

It's not the only one, either. A black yeast, Wangiella dermatitidis, demonstrates enhanced growth under ionizing radiation. Meanwhile, another fungus species, Cladosporium cladosporioides, exhibits enhanced melanin production but not growth under gamma or UV radiation.

So the behavior observed in C. sphaerospermum is not universal to melanized fungi.

Does that suggest that it's an adaptation allowing the fungus to feast on powerful light that can kill other organisms? Or is it a stress response that enhances survival under extenuating, but not ideal, conditions?

At this point, it's impossible to tell.

What we do know is that this humble, velvety black fungus is doing something clever with ionizing radiation to survive and maybe even proliferate in a place too dangerous for humans to safely tread; that life does, indeed, find a way.

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Scientists Stunned As Rare Killifish Thought Extinct Is Found Alive in Bolivia

BY PENSOFT PUBLISHERS, NOV. 28, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/scientists-stunned-as-rare-killifish-thought-extinct-is-found-alive-in-bolivia/

Moema claudiae. 

Credit: Heinz Arno Drawert and Thomas Otto Litz

A long-lost Bolivian killifish has been found alive, revealing a globally important hotspot for seasonal killifish diversity at risk from deforestation.

Researchers have confirmed the rediscovery of Moema claudiae, a seasonal killifish from Bolivia that had been considered possibly extinct. Finding this species again brings renewed optimism for its protection and for the conservation of the region’s wetland ecosystems.

Moema claudiae had not been observed for more than 20 years at its original site, which has since been destroyed and converted into farmland. Despite extensive surveys over the past two decades, no additional individuals were found, leading to its classification as Critically Endangered under IUCN criteria and its assumption of being possibly extinct.

Moema claudiae habitat.

 Credit: Heinz Arno Drawert and Thomas Otto Litz
Discovery in a remnant forest pond



During a recent field expedition, researchers Heinz Arno Drawert and Thomas Otto Litz located a surviving group of the fish in a small temporary pond preserved within a fragment of forest surrounded by agricultural land.

The rediscovery, published in the open-access journal Nature Conservation, marks the first confirmed sighting of the species in over twenty years. It allowed scientists to capture the first live photographs, document its behavior, and investigate aspects of its natural history that had never been recorded before.

Moema claudiae. 

Credit: Heinz Arno Drawert and Thomas Otto Litz



Thomas Litz, one of the co-authors, said: “For me, it is something special to have rediscovered Moema claudiae. This has shown that we now have the opportunity to preserve this species in the wild. I am all the more pleased because Prof. Wilson Costa named this species after his wife Claudia, and I would like to take this opportunity to thank him especially for decades of collaboration and support.”

The site where the fish was found contained not only Moema claudiae but also six additional species of seasonal killifish. This makes it the most genetically diverse group of these fish recorded anywhere in the world.

The area’s distinctive environment, located at the transition between the Amazon forest and the Llanos de Moxos savannas, seems to foster this remarkable variety. However, fast-moving deforestation and the spread of agriculture are putting these habitats under severe pressure.

Heinz Arno Drawert. 

Credit: Heinz Arno Drawert and Thomas Otto Litz

Ecological pressures and habitat loss

Following this discovery, scientists emphasize the urgent need to protect the area, as it is now the only known site harboring a wild population of Moema claudiae, as well as an exceptional global hotspot for seasonal killifish diversity.

Over the last 25 years, nearly 10 million hectares of forest were lost in Bolivia, including vital wetland habitats. Deforestation has accelerated dramatically in recent years, raising serious concerns for the future of many unique species and ecosystems.

Thomas Otto Litz. 

Credit: Heinz Arno Drawert and Thomas Otto Litz



“Without rapid and effective action to curb the irrational expansion of the agricultural frontier in Bolivia’s lowlands, we risk losing some of the world’s most important terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and with them the irreplaceable goods and services they provide,” added co-author Heinz Drawert. “We cannot hope to achieve true social and economic wellbeing unless we also maintain the functionality of the ecosystems that sustain it.”

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New Study Reveals the Hidden Source of Rainfall That Could Make or Break Global Crops

BY C. CLARK, U. OF CALIFORNIA - SAN DIEGO, NOV. 28, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/new-study-reveals-the-hidden-source-of-rainfall-that-could-make-or-break-global-crops/

Researchers have uncovered an overlooked link between atmospheric moisture sources and the reliability of rainfall that sustains major food-producing regions. Their work hints at feedback loops and land-use changes that could amplify drought risk in ways policymakers are only beginning to grasp. Credit: SciTechDaily.com

UC San Diego–led research shows that knowing the origins of rainfall could transform how drought planning and land management are approached worldwide.

A new study from the University of California San Diego reveals an overlooked factor that shapes crop vulnerability worldwide: the original source of the rain that falls on farmland.

Published in Nature Sustainability, the research tracks atmospheric moisture back to where it evaporated, whether it began over the ocean or over land areas such as soil, lakes, and forests. As sunlight heats these surfaces, water becomes vapor, rises into the atmosphere, and later returns as rain.

Moisture that comes from the ocean can travel vast distances on global winds and often moves through large-scale weather systems including atmospheric rivers, monsoons, and tropical storms. Moisture that comes from land, sometimes referred to as recycled rainfall, evaporates from nearby soils and vegetation and fuels local weather events. The study shows that the mix of moisture sourced from land versus ocean strongly affects drought risk and agricultural productivity.

“Our work reframes drought risk—it’s not just about how much it rains, but where that rain comes from,” said Yan Jiang, the study’s lead author and postdoctoral scholar at UC San Diego with a joint appointment at the School of Global Policy and Strategy and Scripps Institution of Oceanography. “Understanding the origin of rainfall and whether it comes from oceanic or land sources, gives policymakers and farmers a new tool to predict and mitigate drought stress before it happens.”

A New Way to Forecast Drought Risk

Using nearly two decades of satellite observations, Jiang and co-author Jennifer Burney of Stanford University estimated how much of global rainfall originates from land evaporation. They found that when more than about one-third of rainfall comes from land, crop-producing regions face a much higher risk of drought, soil drying, and yield losses. This is likely because ocean-driven systems tend to bring heavier rainfall, whereas land-driven systems produce lighter and less dependable showers, increasing the chance of water shortages during critical periods of plant growth.

Yan Jiang, lead author of the Nature Sustainability study and postdoctoral scholar at UC San Diego with a joint appointment at the School of Global Policy and Strategy and Scripps Institution of Oceanography. 

Credit: University of California San Diego



These findings offer a new way for farmers and decision-makers to identify which areas face the greatest risk and to prepare more effectively for future drought conditions.

“For farmers in areas that rely heavily on land-originating moisture — like parts of the Midwest or eastern Africa — local water availability becomes the deciding factor for crop success,” Jiang explained. “Changes in soil moisture or deforestation can have immediate, cascading impacts on yields.”

Two Global Hotspots: The U.S. Midwest and East Africa

The study highlights two striking hotspots of vulnerability: the U.S. Midwest and tropical East Africa.

In the Midwest, Jiang notes, droughts have become more frequent and intense in recent years — even in one of the world’s most productive and technologically advanced farming regions.

“Our findings suggest that the Midwest’s high reliance on land-sourced moisture, from surrounding soil and vegetation, could amplify droughts through what we call ‘rainfall feedback loops,’” Jiang said. “When the land dries out, it reduces evaporation, which in turn reduces future rainfall—creating a self-reinforcing drought cycle.”

Because this region is also a major supplier to global grain markets, disruptions there have ripple effects far beyond U.S. borders. Jiang suggests that Midwestern producers may need to pay closer attention to soil moisture management, irrigation efficiency, and timing of planting to avoid compounding drought stress.

In contrast, East Africa faces a more precarious but still reversible situation. Rapid cropland expansion and loss of surrounding rainforests threaten to undermine the very moisture sources that sustain rainfall in the region.

“This creates a dangerous conflict,” Jiang said. “Farmers are clearing forests to grow more crops, but those forests help generate the rainfall that the crops depend on. If that moisture source disappears, local food security will be at greater risk.”

However, Jiang sees opportunity as well as risk:

“Eastern Africa is on the front line of change, but there is still time to act. Smarter land management — like conserving forests and restoring vegetation — can protect rainfall and sustain agricultural growth.”
Forests as Rainmakers

The research underscores that forests and natural ecosystems are crucial allies in farming. Forests release vast amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration (when plants produce moisture), effectively seeding the clouds that bring rain to nearby croplands.

“Upland forests are like natural rainmakers,” Jiang said. “Protecting these ecosystems isn’t just about biodiversity—it’s about sustaining agriculture.”

A Tool for Smarter Land and Water Management

Jiang’s research provides a new scientific framework connecting land management, rainfall patterns, and crop planning — a relationship that could become central to future drought resilience strategies.

The study’s novel satellite-based mapping technique could help governments and farmers identify where to invest in irrigation infrastructure, soil water storage, and forest conservation to maintain reliable rainfall.

The Life of Earth

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These Giant Whales Eat up to 202 Squid a Day

BY JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY, NOV. 28, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/these-giant-whales-eat-up-to-202-squid-a-day/

Scientists have revealed how much squid Hawaiian short-finned pilot whales must harvest from the deep each day, using high-tech tags to track their demanding foraging behavior. 

Credit: Shutterstock

There are plenty more squid in the sea for Hawaiian short-finned pilot whales.

How much squid do short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) living off Hawai‘i need each day, and is the local ecosystem able to support their appetite? Understanding these fundamental details is key to protecting the species.

Scientists from the USA, Spain, Australia, and Denmark report in the Journal of Experimental Biology that each whale consumes between 82 and 202 squid daily. When multiplied across the entire Hawaiian population, this comes to roughly 88,000 tonnes of squid per year, which remains a small fraction of the region’s overall squid resources.

Determining an animal’s daily food needs is an essential part of assessing its long-term survival, especially when declining prey could place a species at risk. Pilot whales are a particularly intriguing example, as they routinely descend as far as 1700m in search of squid, their primary food source.

“These animals have been studied in locations around the world, but relatively little is known about them in Hawaiian waters,” says William Gough (University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, USA), who teamed up with colleagues to solve the riddle of just how much Hawaiian squid short-finned pilot whales consume.

An aerial view of Hawai’i short-finned pilot whales at the surface.

 Credit: HIMB Marine Mammal Research Program



Tagging Whales in the Open Ocean

The researchers began their work by heading into the Pacific Ocean, where they placed data-logging tags held on by detachable suction cups onto eight short-finned pilot whales.

“Short-finned pilot whales are fairly small and quick, so we really have to pick our moment,” recalls Gough, adding that each tag was equipped with motion sensors, a camera with a light, hydrophones to record echolocation clicks, and GPS.

“Ideally, we attached the tag right behind the blowhole facing the head, so we could see any foraging at depth,” says Gough.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aj8AtBCmoH4&t=1s

A tagged short-finned pilot whale films other whales in its pod.

 Credit: HIMB Marine Mammal Research Program and Pacific Whale Foundation

To estimate each animal’s size, the team also flew a drone 25m above the whales and recorded overhead footage.

When the tags later detached and drifted, sometimes traveling as far as 50 miles through rough seas, the researchers retrieved them. The recordings revealed 118 deep dives that reached depths of up to 864m, with each whale averaging about 39 dives per day.

The researchers then analyzed the whales’ tail beats as the animals descend and calculated that short-finned pilot whales use 73.8kJ/min of energy while diving and only 44.4 kJ/min when at the surface. But what would that equate to in terms of the number of squid that the whales would need to consume to survive?

A pod of Hawai’i short-finned pilot whales below the surface.

 Credit: HIMB Marine Mammal Research Program

Squid on the Menu

Listening for the tell-tale echolocation clicks on the hydrophone recordings as the whales intercepted a squid, the team estimated that the whales consume approximately 4 squid per dive and that each squid provides around 560kJ of energy when digested.

Gough then calculated that each whale must eat between 82 and 202 squid per day, totalling as many as 73,730 squid per whale per year.

But how many squid does the whole population of short-finned pilot whales around Hawaiʻi actually consume over a year? Based on estimates that the population is up to 8,000 individuals, the team calculated that the pilot whales together consume as many as 88,000 tonnes of squid each year, which is fortunately, a drop in the ocean for the local squid population.

“These results show that short-finned pilot whales are in relatively good shape in Hawaiʻi, having found an abundant and reliable source of food,” says Gough, who is optimistic about the future of Hawaiian pilot whales.

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Scientists Identify the Evolutionary “Purpose” of Consciousness

BY RUHR-U. BOCHUM, NOV. 27, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/scientists-identify-the-evolutionary-purpose-of-consciousness/

Shutterstock

Summary: Researchers at Ruhr University Bochum explore why consciousness evolved and why different species developed it in distinct ways. By comparing humans with birds, they show that complex awareness may arise through different neural architectures yet serve similar purposes.

New research examines why consciousness evolved by comparing humans with birds.

What evolutionary purpose does consciousness serve, and what insights can birds offer about its origins? These questions are at the heart of two new studies from researchers at Ruhr University Bochum.

Over the past twenty years, interest in the science of consciousness has grown rapidly, yet a key issue remains unresolved:

What is consciousness actually for? Why did it appear in the first place? 

Finding answers is essential for understanding why certain species (such as our own) developed conscious awareness, while others (such as oak trees) did not. Research on bird brains adds another important perspective, showing that evolution can produce similar functional outcomes for consciousness even when the underlying brain structures differ. The teams led by Professors Albert Newen and Onur Güntürkün at Ruhr University Bochum, Germany recently published their findings in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B.

Albert Newen. 

Credit: RUB, Marquard

Purposes of pleasure and pain?

Our conscious experience shapes every part of our lives through moments of enjoyment as well as discomfort. We might notice the warmth of sunlight on our skin or listen to birdsong and feel a sense of ease.

At other times, we become aware of pain, such as a knee that aches after a fall, or we struggle with persistent feelings of pessimism. This raises a fundamental question: why would living beings evolve a capacity that includes both pleasurable sensations and experiences that can be deeply unpleasant or even overwhelming?

Albert Newen and Carlos Montemayor describe consciousness as consisting of three forms, each serving a distinct purpose: 

1. basic arousal, 2. general alertness, and 3. reflexive (self-)consciousness.

Stage One: Basic Arousal

“Evolutionarily, basic arousal developed first, with the base function of putting the body in a state of ALARM in life-threatening situations so that the organism can stay alive,” explains Newen. “Pain is an extremely efficient means for perceiving damage to the body and to indicate the associated threat to its continued life. This often triggers a survival response, such as fleeing or freezing.”

Stage Two: General Alertness

A second step in evolution is the development of general alertness. This allows us to focus on one item in a simultaneous flow of different information. When we see smoke while someone is speaking to us, we can only focus on the smoke and search for its source.

“This makes it possible to learn about new correlations: first the simple, causal correlation that smoke comes from fire and shows where a fire is located. But targeted alertness also lets us identify complex, scientific correlations,” says Carlos Montemayor.

Stage Three: Reflexive (Self-)Consciousness

Humans and some animals then develop a reflexive (self-)consciousness. In its complex form, it means that we are able to reflect on ourselves as well as our past and future. We can form an image of ourselves and incorporate it into our actions and plans.

“Reflexive consciousness, in its simple forms, developed parallel to the two basic forms of consciousness,” explains Newen. “In such cases, conscious experience focuses not on perceiving the environment, but rather on the conscious registration of aspects of oneself.”

This includes the state of one’s own body, as well as one’s perception, sensations, thoughts, and actions. To use one simple example, recognizing oneself in the mirror is a form of reflexive consciousness. Children develop this skill at 18 months, and some animals have been shown to do this as well, such as chimpanzees, dolphins, and magpies. Reflexive conscious experiences – as its core function – makes it possible for us to better integrate into society and coordinate with others.

What Birds Perceive

Gianmarco Maldarelli and Onur Güntürkün show in their article that birds may possess fundamental forms of conscious perception. The researchers highlight three central areas in which birds show remarkable parallels to conscious experience in mammals: sensory consciousness, neurobiological foundations, and accounts of self-consciousness.

Firstly, studies of sensory consciousness indicate that birds not only automatically process stimuli, but subjectively experience them. When pigeons are presented with ambiguous visual stimuli, they shift between various interpretations, similar to humans. Crows have also been shown to possess nerve signals that do not reflect the physical presence of a stimulus, but rather the animal’s subjective perception. When a crow sometimes consciously perceives a stimulus and does not at other times, certain nerve cells react precisely according to this internal experience.

Secondly, birds’ brains contain functional structures that meet the theoretical requirements of conscious processing, despite their different brain structure. “The avian equivalent to the prefrontal cortex, the NCL, is immensely connected and allows the brain to integrate and flexibly process information,” says Güntürkün. “The connectome of the avian forebrain, which presents the entirety of the flows of information between the regions of the brain, shares many similarities with mammals. Birds thus meet many criteria of established theories of consciousness, such as the Global Neuronal Workspace theory.”

Thirdly, more recent experiments show that birds may have different types of self-perception. Even though some species of corvids pass the traditional mirror test, other ecologically significant versions of the tests have shown further types of self-consciousness in other bird species. “Experiments indicate that pigeons and chickens differentiate between their reflection in a mirror and a real fellow member of their species, and react to these according to context. This is a sign of situational, basic self-consciousness,” says Güntürkün.

The findings suggest that consciousness is an older and more widespread evolutionary phenomenon than had previously been assumed. Birds demonstrate that conscious processing is also possible without a cerebral cortex and that different brain structures can achieve similar functional solutions.

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New Study Suggests That an Ancient Chinese Herbal Remedy Could Improve Fertility

BY SHANGHAI JIAO TONG U. JOURNAL CENTER, NOV. 23, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/new-study-suggests-that-an-ancient-chinese-herbal-remedy-could-improve-fertility/

A recent study reveals how a traditional Chinese herbal formula may influence the biological pathways that govern endometrial repair and receptivity. Researchers observed notable changes in uterine structure and signaling molecules, suggesting a potential mechanism that bridges classical medicine with modern reproductive biology. 

Credit: Shutterstock

New research reveals how the traditional Chinese formula Jinfeng Pills can biologically restore a thin endometrium, a persistent contributor to infertility.

A new study published in the journal Reproductive and Developmental Medicine has identified how a traditional Chinese herbal formula may help restore endometrial receptivity in cases of thin endometrium in rats, a condition frequently linked to infertility.

Researchers working with female Sprague-Dawley rats found that Jinfeng Pills, a formula historically used within the Chinese imperial harem, were able to noticeably increase endometrial thickness. The treatment also improved glandular and vascular density while raising the activity of molecular markers that support a receptive uterine environment.

Thin endometrium, typically defined as a lining measuring less than 7 mm, is seen in up to 2.5% of women facing infertility. The condition may develop after repeated uterine procedures, infections, or hormone-related disruptions. These factors can limit blood flow, hinder proper endometrial growth, and create conditions that make implantation difficult. Treatment options remain limited, which is why the condition continues to challenge physicians and researchers.

What Are Jinfeng Pills?

Jinfeng Pills are a traditional Chinese medicinal formula recorded in historical medical texts and noted for use within imperial palace settings. The prescription includes a combination of herbs selected to support reproductive health by promoting circulation, regulating hormonal balance, and strengthening organ systems described in traditional Chinese medicine.

The formula contains a combination of herbs and animal-derived ingredients that have long been associated with supporting reproductive health. These include Epimedium, Citronella, Motherwort, Cinnamon, Ass Hide Glue, Velvet Antler, Ginseng, Privet Fruit, and Polygonum multiflorum.

Morphological changes in each group (×100). 

The boxes indicate the thickness of the endometrium. (A) The morphology and thickness of the endometrium in the control group. (B) The model group exhibited a markedly thinner endometrium with structural disorganization. The characteristic undulating architecture was absent, accompanied by sparse glandular distribution and a reduced endometrial volume. (C) The morphology and thickness of the endometrium in the estrogen group. (D) The Jinfeng pills group displayed a markedly thicker endometrium characterized by a prominent, well-defined wavy pattern.

 Credit: Gao, Hong; Cheng, Ling; Yan, Xiao-Hong; Zhang, Heng-Yuan; Wu, Rong-Feng; Li, You-Zhu

Restoration of Endometrial Structure and Function

To investigate potential treatments, the research team produced a thin endometrium model in rats by applying 95% ethanol, which caused controlled chemical injury to the uterine lining. After the model was established, the animals were separated into several groups: a control group, a model group (no treatment), an estradiol valerate group (a common hormonal therapy), and a group that received Jinfeng Pills.

The scientists then examined how each treatment affected the uterus by using histological staining, ELISA, immunofluorescence, and qPCR. These methods allowed them to assess structural changes in the endometrium, shifts in serum biomarkers, and alterations in the gene and protein activity required for successful implantation.

Restoration of Endometrial Structure and Function

The results indicated that rats treated with Jinfeng Pills showed a significantly thicker endometrium with restored undulating structure, increased glandular density, and enhanced vascularization. Serum levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a key protein for blood vessel formation, were notably higher.

According to traditional Chinese medicine, Jinfeng Pills work by “warming the kidney, tonifying Yang, nourishing the liver and spleen, regulating Chong and Ren vessels, and promoting blood circulation.” This study provides a molecular basis for these claims, showing that the formula enhances vascular regeneration, supports endometrial repair, and improves the uterine environment for embryo attachment.

“This study experimentally confirms the efficacy of Jinfeng Pills in treating thin endometrium in a rat model and to preliminarily clarify its mechanism of action,” the authors noted. The findings open the door to more integrative treatment strategies, combining traditional medicine with modern reproductive technology to help patients with thin endometrium achieve successful pregnancies.

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According to Scientists, This “Miracle Plant” Could Help Treat Alzheimer’s Disease

BY SCITECHDAILY.COM, NOV. 27, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/according-to-scientists-this-miracle-plant-could-help-treat-alzheimers-disease/

Scientists used advanced computer modeling to explore whether certain Aloe vera compounds could interact with key enzymes involved in Alzheimer’s disease. Their early findings reveal intriguing molecular behaviors that may hint at unexplored therapeutic possibilities. 

Credit: Stock

Computer simulations suggest that common plant molecules from Aloe vera might block enzymes tied to Alzheimer’s disease.

Scientists have identified potential therapeutic compounds from Aloe vera that could offer new hope for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) treatment. A study published in Current Pharmaceutical Analysis used computer-based techniques to explore the interaction of Aloe vera compounds with acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), enzymes central to AD and involved in breaking down the memory-related chemical acetylcholine.

Alzheimer’s is the most common cause of dementia, slowly damaging memory, thinking, and daily function. It’s linked to toxic protein build-up in the brain and a loss of the chemical messenger acetylcholine, which is crucial for learning and memory. Current drugs that boost acetylcholine can help symptoms for a while, but they don’t stop the disease from getting worse.

From Traditional Remedy to Digital Screening

“Since ancient times, Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f., often referred to as a ‘miracle plant,’ has been utilized for over 3000 years across a variety of cultures,” the authors write. Today it’s widely used in skincare and health products, but it also contains a range of bioactive compounds that scientists are now exploring for brain health.

“The main objective of this study is to identify potential inhibitors among the bioactive compounds of Aloe vera, capable of efficiently targeting the enzymes acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE).”

The team screened several Aloe-derived molecules and found that Beta sitosterol stood out. “Our findings suggest that Beta sitosterol, one of the Aloe vera compounds, exhibits significant binding affinities and stability, making it a promising candidate for further drug development,” said Meriem Khedraoui, lead author of the study.

Using molecular docking and dynamics simulations, the researchers showed that Beta sitosterol binds strongly to both AChE and BChE, with binding affinities of −8.6 kcal/mol and −8.7 kcal/mol, respectively, surpassing other compounds like Succinic acid.

“These results highlight the potential of Beta sitosterol as a dual inhibitor, which could be crucial in managing Alzheimer’s disease,” said Khedraoui.

Safety, Drug-Like Properties, and ADMET Analysis

The research also included ADMET (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity) analysis to predict how the compounds might behave in the body. Beta sitosterol and Succinic acid were found to have favorable profiles, indicating good absorption and low toxicity. “The comprehensive analysis supports the potential of these compounds as safe and effective therapeutic agents,” said Samir Chtita, another author of the study.

“In conclusion, Beta sitosterol and Succinic acid emerge as potential drug candidates for Alzheimer’s disease, with Beta sitosterol being particularly promising due to its favorable pharmacokinetics, binding affinity, and chemical reactivity,” the authors write. They caution that this work is still at the computer-simulation stage, and lab studies plus clinical trials will be needed to confirm any real-world benefits.

This study provides a foundation for further exploration into the therapeutic potential of Aloe vera compounds for Alzheimer’s disease. Future work will focus on experimental validation and clinical trials to confirm these findings. “Our in silico approach offers a promising direction for the development of novel treatments for Alzheimer’s disease,” said Khedraoui.

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'Hidden' Volcanoes Pose The Greatest Threat to The World, Scientists Warn

26 Nov. 2025, By M CASSIDY, THE CONVERSATION

https://www.sciencealert.com/hidden-volcanoes-pose-the-greatest-threat-to-the-world-scientists-warn

Digitally enhanced image of a volcano eruption seen from space. 

(Roberto Machado Noa/Getty Images)

The next global volcanic disaster is more likely to come from volcanoes that appear dormant and are barely monitored than from the likes of famous volcanoes such as Etna in Sicily or Yellowstone in the US.

Often overlooked, these "hidden" volcanoes erupt more often than most people realise.

In regions like the Pacific, South America and Indonesia, an eruption from a volcano with no recorded history occurs every seven to ten years. And their effects can be unexpected and far-reaching.

One volcano has just done exactly that. In November 2025, the Hayli Gubbi volcano in Ethiopia erupted for the first time in recorded history (at least 12,000 years that we know of).

It sent ash plumes 8.5 miles into the sky, with volcanic material falling in Yemen and drifting into air space over northern India.

You don't have to look far back in history to find another example. In 1982, the little-known and unmonitored Mexican volcano El Chichón erupted explosively after lying dormant for centuries.

This series of eruptions caught authorities off-guard: hot avalanches of rock, ash and gas flattened vast areas of jungle. Rivers were dammed, buildings destroyed, and ash fell as far as Guatemala.

More than 2,000 people died and 20,000 were displaced in Mexico's worst volcanic disaster in modern times. But the catastrophe did not end in Mexico.

The sulphur from the eruption formed reflective particles in the upper atmosphere, cooling the northern hemisphere and shifting the African monsoon southwards, causing extreme drought.

This alone would test the resilience and coping strategies of any region. But when it coincided with a vulnerable population that was already experiencing poverty and civil war, disaster was inevitable.

The Ethiopian (and East African) famine of 1983-85 claimed the lives of an estimated 1 million people. This brought global attention to poverty with campaigns like Live Aid.

Few scientists, even within my field of Earth science, realise that a remote, little-known volcano played a part in this tragedy.

Despite these lessons, global investment in volcanology has not kept pace with the risks: fewer than half of active volcanoes are monitored, and scientific research still disproportionately focuses on the well-known few.

There are more published studies on one volcano (Mount Etna) than on all the 160 volcanoes of Indonesia, Philippines and Vanuatu combined. These are some of the most densely populated volcanic regions on Earth – and the least understood.

The largest eruptions don't just affect the communities around them. They can temporarily cool the planet, disrupt monsoons and reduce harvests across entire regions.

In the past, such shifts have contributed to famines, disease outbreaks and major social upheaval, yet scientists still lack a global system to anticipate or manage these future risks.

Mount Etna on the Italian island of Sicily.

 (etvulc/Canva)



To help address this, my colleagues and I recently launched the Global Volcano Risk Alliance, a charity that focuses on anticipatory preparedness for high-impact eruptions.

We work with scientists, policymakers and humanitarian organisations to highlight overlooked risks, strengthen monitoring capacity where it is most needed, and support communities before eruptions occur.

Acting early, rather than responding only after disaster strikes, stands the best chance of preventing the next hidden volcano from becoming a global crisis.

Why 'quiet' volcanoes aren't safe

So why do volcanoes fail to receive attention proportionate to their risk? In part, it comes down to predictable human biases. Many people tend to assume that what has been quiet will remain quiet (normalcy bias). If a volcano has not erupted for generations, it is often instinctively considered safe.

The likelihood of an event tends to be judged by how easily examples come to mind (this mental shortcut is known as availability heuristic).

Well-known volcanoes or eruptions, such as the Icelandic ash cloud from 2010, are familiar and can feel threatening, while remote volcanoes with no recent eruptions rarely register at all.

These biases create a dangerous pattern: we only invest most heavily after a disaster has already happened (response bias). El Chichón, for instance, was only monitored after the 1982 catastrophe.

However, three-quarters of large eruptions (like El Chichón and bigger) come from volcanoes that have been quiet for at least 100 years and, as a result, receive the least attention.

Volcano preparedness needs to be proactive rather than reactive. When volcanoes are monitored, when communities know how to respond, and when communication and coordination between scientists and authorities is effective, thousands of lives can be saved.

Disasters have been averted in these ways in 1991 (at Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines), in 2019 (at Mount Merapi in Indonesia) and in 2021 (at La Soufrière on the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent).

To close these gaps, the world needs to shift attention towards undermonitored volcanoes in regions such as Latin America, south-east Asia, Africa and the Pacific – places where millions of people live close to volcanoes that have little or no historical record.

This is where the greatest risks lie, and where even modest investments in monitoring, early warning and community preparedness could save the most lives.

The Life of Earth

https://chuckincardinal.blogspot.com/

The Color That Shouldn’t Exist: Scientists Find Unexpected Blue on Ancient Artifact

BY AARHUS U., NOV. 26, 2025

https://scitechdaily.com/the-color-that-shouldnt-exist-scientists-find-unexpected-blue-on-ancient-artifact/

A 13,000-year-old stone from Germany preserves traces of an unexpected blue pigment, challenging long-held assumptions about Palaeolithic colour use. 

Credit: Izzy Wisher et al. / Antiquity, 2025

In a groundbreaking discovery that sheds new light on the prehistoric origins of art and human creativity, researchers from Aarhus University have identified the earliest known use of blue pigment in Europe.

At the Final Paleolithic site of Mühlheim-Dietesheim in Germany, archaeologists from Aarhus University identified a faint blue residue on a stone artifact that is roughly 13,000 years old. After applying several advanced scientific techniques, the team determined that the material was the mineral pigment azurite, known for its intense blue color and not previously documented in Europe’s Paleolithic artistic record.

“This challenges what we thought we knew about Paleolithic pigment use,” sais Dr. Izzy Wisher, the lead author of the study.

Rethinking Paleolithic Color Traditions

Until recently, researchers assumed that Paleolithic artists relied almost entirely on red and black pigments, since virtually no other colors appear in surviving artworks from this era. Many experts attributed this pattern to either the scarcity of blue minerals or their limited appeal.

Because blue tones are missing from known Paleolithic art, the new finding raises the possibility that blue pigments were instead applied to the body or used to color textiles, activities that rarely preserve well in the archaeological record.

Microscopic image of nanosized blue pigment particles located directly beside the visible concentrations. 

Credit: Izzy Wisher et al. / Antiquity, 2025

“The presence of azurite shows that Paleolithic people had a deep knowledge of mineral pigments and could access a much broader color palette than we previously thought – and they may have been selective in the way they used certain colors,” Izzy Wisher says.

A Stone Palette Reveals New Possibilities

The stone bearing the azurite traces was originally thought to be an oil lamp. Now, it appears to have been a mixing surface or palette for preparing blue pigments — hinting at artistic or cosmetic traditions that remain largely invisible today.

The findings urge a rethink of Paleolithic art and color use, opening new avenues for exploring how early humans expressed identity, status, and beliefs through materials far more varied and vibrant than previously imagined.

The birth of modern Man

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'Lucy' Was Neighbors With an Even Older Human Ancestor, Fossils Reveal

27 Nov. 2025, By T. KOUMOUNDOUROS

https://www.sciencealert.com/lucy-was-neighbors-with-an-even-older-human-ancestor-fossils-reveal

Artist's reconstruction of the hominin Australopithecus afarensis. (Dave Einsel/Getty Images)

A jumble of bones and teeth confirms two species of human ancestor lived side by side over 3.3 million years ago in Ethiopia's Afar Rift.

This is the first clear evidence that these ancient relatives may have overlapped not just in time but also coexisted as neighbors, explains Arizona State University paleoanthropologist Yohannes Haile-Selassie, with remains of each species having been found within 5 kilometers (3 miles) of each other.

Haile-Selassie and team determined the foot bones discovered in 2009 likely belong to a species older than the famous hominin 'Lucy' (Australopithecus afarensis).

They identified it as Australopithecus deyiremeda, previously only known from partial jawbones. The 3.4-million-year-old foot reveals a different type of locomotion than A. afarensis, suggesting that while they coexisted, the two species may have had very different lifestyles.

The 3.4-million-year-old Burtele Foot fossil (BRT-VP-2/73) consists of pieces from the first four toes. On the right, it has been embedded into the outline of a gorilla's foot, revealing similarities in their big toes.

 (Yohannes Haile-Selassie)



While Lucy was an expert tree-climber, skeletal features suggest A. deyiremeda may have been even better.

Fragments of a big toe were found among the eight foot bones, suggesting the digit had a much greater range in movement that made them opposable, akin to our own thumbs today. This suggests A. deyiremeda were still highly adapted to spending a significant amount of their time climbing trees.

"The species to which this foot belongs to was a good and able climber, which allowed this species to exploit resources from trees, arboreal resources," says Haile-Selassie.

The other toes revealed this species was also capable of hyperflexing its foot. Hyperflexing gives us the ability to push off from flat ground, meaning this early ancestor was already adapted to walking comfortably on two legs as well.

"It's a mix of arboreal adaptation … but also bipedality, which makes it really different from what we see in … A. afarensis," explains Haile-Selassie.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGrWsULVnKI&t=2s

Isotope analysis of fossilized teeth from both A. deyiremeda and A. afarensis confirmed that they had different diets, further supporting the alternative lifestyle theory. Lucy's species is known to have a more diverse diet, consuming different plants distinguished by two types of carbon fixation in photosynthesis, C3 and C4.

Human ancestors likely shifted to eating more C4 plants, which grew more efficiently in the hot, dry conditions of the Pleistocene's changing climate.

Isotope analysis of fossilized teeth from both A. deyiremeda and A. afarensis confirmed that they had different diets, further supporting the alternative lifestyle theory. Lucy's species is known to have a more diverse diet, consuming different plants distinguished by two types of carbon fixation in photosynthesis, C3 and C4.


Human ancestors likely shifted to eating more C4 plants, which grew more efficiently in the hot, dry conditions of the Pleistocene's changing climate.

The birth of modern Man

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